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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Franklin K. Lanb, Secretary 



United States Geological Survey 

George Otis Smith, Director 
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 398 



GROUND WATER 



rN 



SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 



BY 



W. C. MENDENHALL, R. B. DOLE 
AND HERMMT STABLER 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1916 



Montgraph 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
Franklin K. Lane, Secretary 



United States Geological Survey 

George Otis Smith, Director 



Water-Supply Paper 398 




GROUND WATER 



IN 



SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 



BY 






W. C. MENDENHALL, R. B. DOLE 
and HERMAN STABLER 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1916 



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D. of D. 
MAY 9 1916 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Introduction, by W. C. Mendenhall 9 

Development of irrigation in the Southwest 9 

Investigations by the United States Geological Survey 13 

Geography of the valley 15 

Geologic outline 18 

Rocks of the border of the valley 18 

Origin of the present surface of the valley 20 

Soils 22 

Surface waters 23 

Occurrence and utilization of ground water, by W. C. Mendenhall 27 

Origin of the ground water 27 

Underground circulation 28 

Quantity of ground water 29 

Accessibility and availability of ground water 30 

Development of ground water 30 

Value of the waters for irrigation 32 

Quality of the waters, by R. B. Dole 38 

Importance of quality 38 

Sources of data 39 

Conditions of collection of samples 40 

Methods of examination 41 

Field assay 41 

Carbonate and bicarbonate 42 

Chlorine 42 

Sulphate 42 

Total hardness 43 

Probable accuracy 43 

Interpretation of results 46 

Procedures of the Southern Pacific Co 50 

Standards for classification 50 

Mineral constituents of water 50 

Water for irrigation 51 

Source of alkali 51 

Occurrence of alkali 52 

Permissible limits of alkali 52 

Relative harmfulness of the common alkalies 55 

Relation between applied water and soils 55 

Numerical standards 56 

Remedies for alkali troubles 58 

"Washing down the alkali 58 

Drainage 60 

Miscellaneous remedies 61 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Quality of the waters — Continued. 

Standards for classification — Continued. Page. 

Water for boiler use 61 

Formation of scale 61 

Corrosion 62 

Foaming 63 

Remedies for boiler troubles 63 

Boiler compounds 64 

Numerical standards 65 

Water for miscellaneous industrial uses 69 

General requisites 69 

Effects of dissolved and suspended materials 69 

Free acids 70 

Suspended matter 70 

Color 70 

Iron 70 

Calcium and magnesium 71 

Carbonate 72 

Sulphate 72 

Chlorine 72 

Organic matter 73 

Hydrogen sulphide 73 

Miscellaneous substances '. 73 

Water for domestic use 73 

Physical qualities 73 

Bacteriologic qualities 74 

Chemical qualities 75 

Mineral matter and potability 76 

Interpretation of field assays in relation to potability 79 

Chemical character 79 

Total solids 81 

Purification of water 82 

General requirements 82 

Methods of purification 83 

Slow sand filtration 84 

Rapid sand filtration 86 

Cold-water softening 87 

Feed-water heating 88 

Chemical composition of the surface waters 90 

Rivers 90 

Tulare Lake 94 

Buena Vista reservoir 96 

Denudation and deposition 97 

Rate of denudation in the Sierra 97 

Rate of deposition in the valley 98 

Chemical composition of the ground waters 99 

Types of ground water 99 

Conditions north of Kings River 100 

Occurrence of sulphate and nonsulphate waters 100 

Cause of the difference in composition of water 101 

Contact zone of sulphate and nonsulphate waters 102 

Relation between the character of the waters and the origin of the 

silts , 103 



CON IT. NTS. 5 

Quality of the waters— Continued. 

Chemical composition of the ground waters — Continued. page. 

Condit ions around Tulare Lake 104 

Contact zone of sulphate and non-sulphate waters 104 

Total mineral content of waters 106 

Thickness of the lacustrine deposits JOS 

Proper depth of wells near Tulare Lake 108 

Conditions south of Tulare Lake 109 

Composition and quality of east-side waters 110 

Composition and quality of west-side waters 112 

General character 112 

Quality in relation to geographic position 113 

Deposition of calcium sulphate 116 

Composition and quality of axial waters 117 

Irregularity of composition 117 

Chloride content of artesian water 117 

Increase of mineral content from south to north 119 

General conditions 119 

Deep waters 120 

Occlusion of sea water 121 

Shallow waters 122 

Relation of depth to mineral content 122 

Quality for irrigation 123 

East-side waters 123 

West-side waters 124 

Axial waters 125 

Results of using ground waters 125 

Effect of cold water 127 

Quality for industrial use 128 

Industrial development 128 

East-side waters 128 

West-side waters 129 

Axial waters 130 

Results of using ground waters 130 

Quality for domestic use 132 

Depth and position of poor supplies 132 

Possibility of pollution 132 

Municipal supplies 133 

Miscellaneous analyses 134 

Analyses by the California Experiment Station 134 

Analyses by the Reclamation Service 139 

Forecasting quality of ground water 139 

Summary 140 

Pumping tests, by Herman Stabler 142 

Notes on the plants 142 

Tabulated results of pumping tests 165 

Summary of pumping tests .' . 168 

County notes, by W. C. Mendenhall and R. B. Dole 177 

San Joaquin County : 177 

General conditions 177 

Flowing wells 178 

Pumping plants 178 

Quality of water 180 

Well records 182 



6 CONTENTS. 

County notes — Continued. Page. 

Stanislaus County 197 

General conditions 197 

Flowing wells 197 

Pumping plants 198 

Quality of ground water 198 

Well records 200 

Merced County 208 

General conditions 208 

Flowing wells 209 

Pumping plants 209 

Quality of water 210 

Well records 212 

Madera County 226 

General conditions 226 

Flowing wells 226 

Pumping plants , 227 

Quality of water 227 

Well records 229 

Fresno County 234 

General conditions 234 

Flowing wells 236 

Quality of water 237 

Well records 239 

Tulare County 252 

General conditions 252 

Flowing wells 252 

Pumping plants 253 

Permanence of the ground-water supply 253 

Quality of water 255 

Well records 256 

Kings County 281 

General conditions 281 

Flowing wells 282 

Quality of water 283 

Well records 284 

Kern County 289 

General conditions 289 

Flowing wells 289 

Pumping plants 290 

Quality of water 292 

Well records 295 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Plate I. Map of Sun Joaquin Valley, Cal., showing artesian areas, ground- 
water Levels, and pumping plants examined In pocket. 

II. Map of San Joaquin Valley showing location and depth of wells in 

relation to sulphate content of ground waters In pocket. 

III. Cross sections showing sulphate content of ground waters in San 

Joaquin Valley 102 

IV. Map showing prospects for quality of water near Tulare Lake 108 

V. Diagram showing mineral content of ground waters in San Joaquin 

Valley 120 

Figure 1. Index map showing location of San Joaquin Valley 16 

2. Longitudinal sections showing sulphate content of ground water in 

the vicinity of Tulare Lake 105 

3. Cross sections showing mineral content of ground water in the 

vicinity of Tulare Lake 107 

4. Cross section showing content of sulphate and total mineral matter 

of ground waters in the basin of Kern Lake 110 



INSERTS. 



Page. 

Table 34. Summary of pumping plant data 168 

37. Field assays of ground waters in San Joaquin County 180 

38. Mineral analyses of ground waters in San Joaquin County 180 

40. Field assays of ground waters in Stanislaus County 198 

41. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Stanislaus County 198 

43. Field assays of ground waters in Merced County 210 

44. Mineial analyses of ground waters in Merced County 210 

47. Field assays of ground waters in Madera County 228 

48. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Madera County 228 

50. Field assays of ground waters in Fresno County 238 

51. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Fresno County 238 

53. Field assays of ground waters in Tulare County 254 

54. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Tulare County 254 

56. Field assays of ground waters in Kings County 282 

57. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Kings County 282 

60. Field assays of ground waters in Kern County 294 

61. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Kern County 294 

7 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, 

CALIFORNIA. 



By W. C. Mendenhall, R. B. Dole, and Herman Stabler. 



INTRODUCTION. 

By W. C. Mendenhall. 

DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION IN THE SOUTHWEST. 

The agricultural industry in the southwestern part of the United 
States is peculiar in that within that region consumption tends con- 
stantly to exceed production. This condition is due to the large 
areas of desert, which are unsuited for agriculture but support many 
other industries. The irrigated land in the 11 arid States, lying for 
the most part west of the crest of the Rocky Mountains, was 7,254,110 
acres in 1899, when the Twelfth Census was taken, and 13,202,889 
acres in 1909, when the Thirteenth Census was taken. Although 
irrigation development has not been so rapid since 1909 as during 
the preceding decade, it has nevertheless continued, and large tracts 
are added each year to the reclaimed areas through the operation of 
the reclamation act, the Carey Acts, the desert-land law, and the 
development of lands in private ownership. Meanwhile general 
industrial expansion continues, although less rapidly than at earlier 
periods, and under the influence of this expansion and the pressure 
of population from the East most of the Western States are making 
important additions to their population each year. 

In the States of Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico the mining 
industry becomes yearly of greater importance, and the influx of 
people engaged in it is increasing correspondingly. The increase 
in the production of petroleum in California from 395,000 barrels 
in 1892 to 14,000,000 barrels in 1902 and 86,450,000 barrels in 1912 
represents an amazing growth in an industry and in the population 
necessary to support it, which in turn greatly increases the demand 
for food products and thus stimulates agricultural development. 
The growth of trade with oriental countries and the development of 
the mineral resources of Alaska have resulted in great accessions to 
the population of the Pacific coast seaports, particularly those about 
San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound, and in greatly increased 

9 



10 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

demands for food products. The passage in 1914 of an Alaskan rail- 
road bill promises to increase the northern market during the con- 
struction period at least, and the completion of the Panama Canal 
will open eastern and European markets to certain types of Pacific 
coast products, to which these markets are now closed. Southern 
California, as that portion of the State lying south of the Tehachapi 
Mountains is called, has become established as a playground for the 
people of the entire United States, and of the thousands of tourists 
who visit this area each year many become permanent residents. 

Of the areas in the Southwest within which food products for its 
cities, its tourist centers, and its mining regions must be raised, the 
largest and most promising is the interior lowland known as the 
Great Central Valley of California. The southern segment of this 
lowland, San Joaquin Valley, contains about 7,500,000 acres, of 
which 1,728,975 acres was under irrigation in 1912(?). Southern 
California contains approximately a million acres of land that would 
be cultivable if water were applied to it ; yet in this region, where the 
water resources are fully utilized, perhaps a quarter of a million acres 
are under irrigation, and the remaining area either is nonproductive 
or yields a relatively low-grade and uncertain crop through the 
application of dry-farming methods. 

Furthermore, the density of population in the irrigated valleys 
south of the Tehachapi and the large and rapidly growing cities 
there means the consumption of practically all the staple food prod- 
ucts raised. Fruits, especially the citrus varieties, are grown for 
export, and in some years more grain is produced than is necessary 
for local needs; but in general the demand in this area for food sta- 
ples is in excess of the local supply and this condition will be accen- 
tuated rather than ameliorated in the future. 

Imperial Valley, in extreme southeastern California, is rapidly 
becoming a very productive area through the utilization of Colorado 
River water, and many other sections might be mentioned whose 
acreage will increase the total area under irrigation, but all of them 
together are smaller than San Joaquin Valley, which, with that of the 
Sacramento, must become the chief agricultural district of the 
Southwest. 

The agricultural development of this valley is controlled by the 
distribution of rainfall, the character of the soils, and the possibility 
of applying other water than that which reaches the valley as a direct 
result of precipitation upon its surface. Its extreme southern end, 
in the vicinity of Bakersfield, is strictly arid, the average rainfall 
there being less than 5 inches. Precipitation increases gradually 
toward the north, until at Red Bluff, in the northern end of Sacra- 
mento Valley, the annual rainfall averages 25.7 inches. Intermediate 
areas receive an amount of precipitation intermediate between these 



DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION in tin SOUTHWEST. 11 

two extremes; but south of San Francisco Bay the available records 

indicate a rainfall of loss than 10 inches, and over the greater pari of 
this area, of less than 12 inches — an amount insufficient to insure 
crops, even of grain, and entirely inadequate for the other diverse 
food crops which a dense population demands. 

The progressive increase in aridity Prom the northern toward the 
southern end of the valley trough prevails to an equally marked 
extent east of the valley, in the mountain areas from which its surface 
waters are drawn. The total run-off from the Sierra, according to 
the best available records, is about 12,000,000 acre-feet annually. 
Of this amount, 3,300,000 acre-feet is supplied by the streams from 
Kings River southward and 8,700,000 acre-feet by the streams north 
of Kings River. The combined drainage area of the streams from 
Kings River southward is 4,871 square miles; that of the streams 
north of Kings River is 7,714 square miles. That is, a southern por- 
tion of the Sierra, whose area is nearly seven-tenths as large as the 
northern portion, yields but one-third as much water in the form of 
stream discharge. Hence in the south end of San Joaquin Valley 
the acreage which is irrigable by the use of surface waters is very 
much less than that in the northern end of the valley, and the area 
available for development there is correspondingly greater than that 
available farther north. 

The question of water supply is, of course, not the only one that 
confronts those who desire to see the development of San Joaquin 
Valley proceed rapidly, although it is properly regarded as the most 
pressing. The quality of the soil, particularly with reference to the 
presence of hardpan or of alkali, is of the utmost importance. Exten- 
sive alkali areas exist along the axis of the valley and part way up its 
eastern slope, especially at points where the ground waters lie close 
to the surface, and hardpans of at least two types underlie some of 
the higher and otherwise most valuable lands. These soil problems 
are being studied systematically by the soil experts of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture * and the reports that are issued should be sup- 
plemented as rapidly as possible, until definite information as to soils 
is available for the entire valley. 

The conditions already outlined — namely, the great actual and the 
much greater prospective importance of San Joaquin Valley as an 
agriculturally productive center — have led during the last decade to 
greatly increased interest in the possibility of adding to the acreage 
under irrigation, and hence to the output in food products. 

Irrigation enterprises, like those based upon other industries, inva- 
riably pass through a pioneer stage, in which only the most easily 

1 Lapham, Macy H., and Heileman, W. H., Soil survey of the Hanford area, California: U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Bur. Soils, Field Operations 1901. The results of similar surveys are available for areas about 
Bakersfield, Modesto, Turlock, Madera, Fresno, Portersville, and Stockton. 



12 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

accessible resources are utilized. In this stage the land holdings are 
large, the methods of application of water are wasteful, and the 
agricultural output is low. Only later, when the population becomes 
much more dense and the need of greater output is clearly recognized, 
do methods so improve that the ratio of output to area, to re- 
sources, and to investment becomes such as to satisfy reasonable 
economic demands. 

In southern California irrigation methods have been carried to a 
greater degree of refinement than in any other section of the United 
States. When irrigation began there, during the first third of the 
nineteenth century, short crude ditches were constructed by which 
the waters utilized were diverted from the lower courses of the 
streams to near-by lands upon which they were turned, and the only 
products were grain and pasture, by which the flocks and herds were 
carried through the dry season. Such methods were in vogue until 
the late sixties and early seventies, when American settlers entered 
the country and attempted to utilize lands that had been regarded 
as entirely worthless. These settlers brought with them capital, and 
constructed their ditches on higher lines and in a much better manner 
than were the old Spanish zanjas. They applied water much less 
lavishly, to larger areas, and with much better unit results, and so by 
continued improvements of this type all of the surface waters were 
finally utilized to the best advantage. But settlers continued to 
flock to the region, and attention was then turned to the underground 
waters, which were developed at first only to supplement the surface 
supplies. Such reservoir sites as were available were also filed upon 
and made use of, and eventually many enterprises were started, some 
of which depended on a combination of surface and underground 
waters, and others on underground waters alone. Still later refine- 
ments resulted in the reconstruction of many of the old ditches, the 
replacement of open canals by underground pipes, and the elimination 
thereby of waste by seepage and evaporation. In the lower lands 
wells were drilled which yielded flowing water, and stream waters 
which had previously been utilized on these lower lands were diverted 
to the bench lands, where products of higher value could be grown. 

As a result of this intensity of development it is probable that in no 
area in the United States are the waters so thoroughly utilized as in 
the region that lies south of the Tehachapi Mountains. In their pas- 
sage from the mountains, where they originate in precipitation, to the 
sea, where they are lost, some portions of these waters are used as 
many as eight times — in power plants, in irrigation from surface 
streams, and finally by the recovery of that portion of the surface 
flow which, sinking into the alluvial fans, augments the supply in the 
underground reservoirs. 



[INVESTIGATIONS BY U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 1 8 

Much of San Jo&quin Valley is still In the pioneer stage of irri- 
gation development, depending almost exclusively on surface waters, 

and in a largo part of the area waste is great, over-use is the rule, and, 
as a consequence, minimum production results from a maximum use 
of water. But the pioneer stage is passing. Engineers trained in 
more refined methods are entering the region and applying their 
training. Special communities, like those about Portcrsville and 
Lindsay, where citrus fruits are raised, have for a decade or more used 
deep ground waters, whose cost greatly exceeds that of surface 
waters where the latter are available in other parts of the valley. 
This relatively high cost is amply justified, however, in the citrus 
belt by the great value of the product 

In other parts of the valley, as, for example, in the neighborhood 
of Corcoran, capitalists who had profited in other regions through the 
use of flowing artesian waters have undertaken to develop colonies by 
utilizing waters of this type, whose existence had been proved years 
before by the owners of large cattle ranches, who had put down wells 
to obtain water for stock. 

In still other districts, as about Bakersfield, Stockton, and Fresno, 
isolated individual pumping plants have been installed within the last 
decade, and by their use lands whose owners had been unable to 
secure rights to the limited supply of surface waters have been 
brought within the productive zone. 

INVESTIGATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL 

SURVEY. 

These more or less isolated experiments and their successful out- 
come have resulted in a widespread recognition of the fact that the 
productivity of San Joaquin Valley can be greatly increased by the 
utilization of the heretofore neglected ground-water resources. This 
recognition has been followed logically by a desire for specific infor- 
mation as to the quality, occurrence, accessibility, character, and 
proper use of waters of this type. 

In response to this demand the Geological Survey and the Recla- 
mation Service began a study of the ground-water resources of the 
valley in 1905. This work was continued as funds became available 
in 1906 and 1907 by the engineers and geologists of the Survey, and 
in 1908 a preliminary report 1 was issued. The plan at that time in 
mind was to supplement the preliminary statistical study of devel- 
opments by more comprehensive work on the geological conditions 
controlling the distribution and circulation of the ground waters, by 
a careful field reconnaissance of the chemical characteristics of the 
waters, since the preliminary work had revealed the importance of 

1 Mendenhall, W. C, Preliminary report on the ground waters of San Joaquin Valley, California: 17. S. 
Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 222, 1908, 



14 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

this element in the problem, and by a careful study of pumping costs 
under various conditions as developed by the experience of irrigators 
in the valley. The pressure of work in other directions has rendered 
it impossible to carry out this plan fully. Further field geologic 
studies have not been possible, but the chemical reconnaissance was 
completed by R. B. Dole in the fall of 1910, and his report, long ready 
for publication, is included as a part of this volume. Herman Stabler 
examined a large number of pumping plants in the valley during the 
same season, and the results of his studies are also included for the 
benefit of water users in the valley. 

Certain detailed data omitted from Water-Supply Paper 222 but 
forming the basis of many of the conclusions reached in it are 
also now published. The tables of wells examined and their costs, 
equipment, and yields are referred to especially. As a number of 
years have elapsed since the completion of these tables, they do not 
summarize the later developments. The addition of later wells would 
add to the mass of data rather than alter the conclusions to be drawn, 
however, so that their omission is not considered to be of great sig- 
nificance. 

In the preparation of Plates I and II the topographic and engi- 
neering map of San Joaquin Valley issued by the California State 
Engineering Department in 1886 has been used as a foundation. 
Some additions and corrections have been made as a result of later 
surveys, especially those made by the United States Geological Sur- 
vey about Bakersfield and along the southern and western borders of 
the valley, but the earlier map has been used substantially in its 
original form for the greater part of the valley. On Plate I (in 
pocket) the area in which flowing wells may be obtained has been 
outlined with as much accuracy as the information at hand permits. 
Beyond the limits of the belt of flowing wells the attitude of the 
ground-water plane has been indicated by hydrographic contours 
which are based on the elevations of the surface as indicated by the 
topographic sketch contours of the base map. Neither set of con- 
tours is accurate in detail, but it is believed that the relations between 
the two — that is, the depths to ground water at various points — are 
correct within a reasonable margin of error, so that the map will be 
of practical value. It must be remembered, in using this map, that 
ground-water levels do not everywhere remain constant. On the 
deltas and in the irrigated areas there is a more or less regular annual 
variation in level, the plane of saturation rising during the high-water 
period — the period of maximum irrigation in early summer — and fall- 
ing during the low-water period in the autumn and early winter. In 
the past there has been a marked permanent rise in the ground-water 
level in areas to which water has been applied by the construction of 
the large canals of the greater irrigation systems. This rise still con- 



GEOGRAPHY OF THE VALLEY. 15 

tinues in some localities, bo which water has been applied for a [lum- 
ber of years, and it will be marked in regions to which canal systems 
may be extended in the future, although the chief changes of this 
character have doubtless already been brought about. In one or two 
limited localities (here is probably also a general decline in ground- 
water levels. It is not possible, of course, to indicate a varying water 
level by a single set of hydrographic contours. Those used indicate 
about the position and form of the water plane in the period from 
1905 to 1907. 

GEOGRAPHY OF THE VALUE Y. 

San Joaquin Valley and Sacramento Valley together constitute the 
Great Central Valley of California, with an area of nearly 16,000 
square miles. (See fig. 1.) This level-floored depression is more than 
500 miles long and varies from 20 to 50 miles in width. East of it the 
Sierra rises to an elevation between 14,000 and 15,000 feet above 
sea level, and west of it the lower Coast Ranges separate it from the 
Pacific. The greatest elevation of the Sierra is near its eastern edge 
and all its important drainage is westward toward the Great Valley, 
an important fact upon which the greater part of the actual and 
prospective agricultural value of the valley depends. The Coast 
Ranges are a series of parallel ridges of moderate elevation that in- 
close valleys, like those of the Salinas and Santa Clara, which, when 
not too arid, are highly productive. 

The Great Valley itself exhibits little diversity in its physical aspect. 
Such differences as exist between its north and south ends are cli- 
matic, or, if physical, are directly due to climatic differences. Among 
local physical features based upon climatic differences may be men- 
tioned the Tulare basin at the south end of San Joaquin Valley. 
The basin is due to the aridity of the region and the consequent exten- 
sive development of alluvial fans. Two of these, extending from 
Kings River on the east and Los Gatos Creek on the west side of the 
valley, have coalesced in a low ridge south of which lie the Tulare 
Lake and Kern Lake depressions. Basins different in character and 
situation, but originating nevertheless in climatic conditions, are the 
overflow basins of the Sacramento and the lower San Joaquin valleys, 
of which the Yolo basin may be mentioned as a type. These basins 
occupy the lowest portions of the flood plains just outside the ridges 
that form the immediate river banks. 

The central valley opens to San Francisco Bay and thence to the 
Pacific through Carquinez Straits and the Golden Gate, and the com- 
bined drainages of the Sacramento and San Joaquin systems dis- 
charge through these gateways. Other passes, like the Tehachapi, 
the Tejon, and Walker Pass near the south end of San Joaquin Valley 
and the Livermore Valley gateway near Carquinez Straits, extend 



16 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



across the mountain barriers that surround the central lowland, but 
they are not so low nor so pronounced as the central tidal gateway. 
In general it may be said that the Great Valley is completely inclosed 
except for this opening. 




Figure 1.— Index map showing location of San Joaquin Valley (shaded area). 

The larger lobe of the central depression, extending southward 
from Cosumnes River and Suisun Bay, is generally known as San 
Joaquin Valley, although it is not all drained directly by San Joaquin 
River and its tributaries. The southern, more arid third of the de- 
pression, extending from Kings River delta to Tehachapi Mountains, 
has no surface outlet under normal conditions, and the surplus surface 
waters accumulate in the Tulare Lake depression and Buena Vista 



GE0GBAPH1 OF THE VALLEY. 17 

reservoir. Originally Kern Lake received a portion of the excess 
from Kern River, but through tin 4 protection afforded In a restrain- 
ing dike water is kept out of it except when unusual Hoods break 
the restraining dam. The original lake* bottoms have now become 
valuable wheat lands. 

The streams that drain into the valley from the Sierra carry prac- 
tically all of the water that reaches it. They are in every way more 
important than those that enter it from the west. They have larger 
drainage basins, individually and collectively; they have longer 
courses; and they flow from higher mountains, with a much greater 
rainfall and a better protective covering of forest and brush; hence 
their discharge is many times greater and much less erratic than that 
of the west-side streams. 

The total drainage area 1 tributary to the valley from the Sierra 
is 16,089 square miles; from the Tehachapi and Coast ranges 4,293 
square miles; and the area of the valley floor is 11,513 square miles. 
The total area of the San Joaquin basin is therefore 31,895 square 
miles. 

The average run-off of the principal east-side streams north of 
Bangs River, with a combined drainage area of 7,714 square miles, is 
about 8,700,000 acre-feet, while that of Kings, Kaweah, Tule, and 
Kern rivers, discharging into the Tulare basin from a watershed with 
an area of 4,871 square miles, is about 3,300,000 acre-feet. The total 
discharge into the valley from 12,585 square miles of Sierra water- 
shed is therefore about 12,000,000 acre-feet. 

The preponderance of east-side streams has given the valley floor 
its well-marked unsymmetrical form. The valley axis, the line of 
lowest depression, is throughout much nearer the western than the 
eastern foothills. In places it lies against these hills, but elsewhere, 
as between Los Gatos and Cantua creeks, the west-side slopes are 
15 or 18 miles wide, at least one-half as wide as those of the east side. 
They are also steeper than those of the east. Grades of 20 or even 
40 feet to the mile are not rare, and it is unusual for the grades to 
be less than 6 or 8 feet per mile. On the east side 30 feet to a mile 
is about the maximum gradient, while 5 feet or less is perhaps the 
average. 

These conditions are due directly to the fact that the valley floor 
has been built up by the alluvial material eroded by the streams 
from the mountains east and west of the depression and deposited 
in it. The larger and more active streams build flatter but more 
extensive alluvial fans — the type that makes up the east-side slopes ; 
the more erratic and torrential streams of smaller volume build the 
steeper and less extensive fans that constitute the west-side slopes. 

iHall, W. H., Physical data and statistics of California, pp. 396 et seq., State Eng. Dept. California, 1886. 
98205°— wsp 398—16 2 



18 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

GEOLOGIC OUTLINE. 1 
ROCKS OF THE BORDER OF THE VALLEY. 

In simplest outline, the geology of the eastern border of San 
Joaquin Valley consists of the " Bedrock series" of granites and 
metamorphic sedimentary and igneous masses of pre-Cretaceous age, 
overlain at the north and south ends of the valley in an interrupted 
band occupying a zone of low relief between the Sierra proper and 
the valley proper by a series of Tertiary sediments, entirely unaltered 
and including beds as old as the Eocene, although the great body of 
the material seems to be Miocene or Pliocene in age. Between San 
Joaquin River and Portersville this zone of late sediments is missing, 
and the sands and gravels of the valley proper lie upon the flanks of 
the granites and the metamorphic complex. Because of this hiatus 
the east-side Tertiary is separated into two bodies, of which the 
northern extends from Fresno River nearly to the Cosumnes, and the 
southern, conveniently designated as the Bakersfield area, extends 
from Deer Creek to Canada de las Uvas. 

The northern area of Tertiary rocks, which is chiefly in the Milton- 
Merced regions, includes a lower, clayey series that has been called 
the lone formation, a middle zone of andesitic sandstone, coarse 
volcanic breccias, and tuffaceous beds, and an upper gravelly series 
that is in places auriferous. This upper series usually occurs along 
the most westerly foothills and merges at many points with the 
gravels and soils of the valley floor. 

The southern area consists of alternating beds of soft sandstone, 
clay, and gravel, the uppermost beds being coarse, like those of the 
northern area, and scarcely distinguishable in some places from the 
alluvium of the valley itself. 

The geology of the western margin of the valley contrasts in many 
ways with that of the eastern border. The oldest rocks of the Mount 
Diablo Range — the easternmost of the coast ranges — comprise a 
series of altered igneous and sedimentary rocks of Jurassic (?) age 
known as the Franciscan formation, which extends along the axis of 
the range from a point southwest of Coalinga to San Francisco Bay. 
Overlying them on the valley side, but not continuously, is a series 
of sandstones, shales, and conglomerates of Cretaceous and earliest 
Tertiary (Eocene) age. Succeeding these in turn is a variable series, 
locally of great thickness and usually but not always present in some 
of its members, representing the middle and upper Tertiary. These 
rocks, like the older sediments beneath them, are sandstones, shales, 
and conglomerates, but usually they are less firmly indurated than 
the Eocene and Cretaceous rocks. They overlie the latter uncon- 
formably and contain many unconformities within themselves, with a 

1 Abstract from a manuscript by H. R. Johnson, on the geology of the borders of San Joaquin Valley. 



GEOLOGIC OUTLINE. 1!) 

resulting variability in thickness and irregularity in extent of indi- 
vidual beds. This series contains the siliceous shales generally 
spoken of in literatim 4 as the Monterey, besides a great variety and 
abundance of sandstones and conglomerates. Toward the top of the 
series are beds that clearly represent fresh water or subaerial deposi- 
tion, undoubtedly much like that which is now taking place in Tulare 
Lake and in the west-side alluvial fans. As a whole the sedimentary 
series dips toward the valley, although interruptions like the anti- 
cline of the Kettleman and McKittrick hills in places vary the pre- 
vailing monoclinal dips. In general the structures of the valley 
border are more complex at the south end than along the middle 
portion and at the north. 

The valley as a whole is a great structural trough and appears to 
have been such a basin since well back in Tertiary time. Since it 
assumed its general troughlike form, gradual subsidence, perhaps 
interrupted by periods of uplift, has continued and has been accom- 
panied by deposition alternating at least along what is now its 
western border with intervals of erosion. This interrupted but on 
the whole continuous deposition seems to have been marine during 
the early and middle Tertiary; but during the later Tertiary and 
Pleistocene, when presumably the valley had been at least roughly 
outlined by the growth of the Coast Ranges, fresh-water and terrestrial 
conditions became more and more predominant, until the relations 
of land and sea, of rivers and lakes, of coast line and interior, of 
mountain and valley, as they exist now, were gradually evolved. As 
these conditions developed, the ancestors of the present rivers 
probably brought to the salt and fresh water bodies that occupied 
the present site of the valley and its borders, or, in the latest phases 
of the development, to the land surface itself, the clays, sands, 
gravels, and alluvium that subsequently consolidated into the shales, 
sandstones, and conglomerates of the late Tertiary and Pleistocene 
series, just as the present rivers are supplying the alluvium that is 
even now accumulating over the valley floor. 

The very latest of these accumulations are the sand and silt and 
gravel beds penetrated by the driller in his explorations for water 
throughout the valley. They are like the early folded sandstones, 
shales, and conglomerates exposed along the flanks of the valley, 
except that they are generally finer, and are not yet consolidated or 
disturbed. The greater part, perhaps all of them, accumulated as 
stream wash on the valley surface or in interior lakes like the present 
Tulare Lake, but a proportion of the older sediment that is greater as 
we delve farther back into the geologic past accumulated in the sea 
or in salt bays having free connection with the sea. It is these very 
latest geologic deposits, saturated below the ground-water level by 



20 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

the fresh water supplied chiefly by the Sierran streams, that con- 
stitute the reservoirs drawn upon by the wells, whether flowing or 
pumped, throughout the valley. 

The chemical composition of the ground waters, as well as their 
occurrence and accessibility, is related to the geology. Where the 
valley alluvium is derived from the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds of 
the coast ranges, rich in gypsum and other readily soluble minerals, 
the ground waters contain large quantities of the salts. Where, on 
the other hand, the alluvium is derived from the granites and meta- 
morphic rocks of the Sierra, whose potassium, sodium, and calcium 
compounds are in the form of difficultly soluble silicates, the ground 
waters under ordinary conditions contain very little of these salts. 

Obviously if the sands and gravels through which the ground 
waters percolate were deposited under such conditions that salts 
were deposited with them, as in the salt water of the sea or of bays 
like San Francisco Bay, or in interior lakes that are saline through 
evaporation, as is true of Tulare Lake, then the ground waters them- 
selves will quickly become saline, although when they leave the 
mountains as surface waters, before their absorption by the alluvial 
fans, they may be as pure natural waters as are known in the world. 

ORIGIN OF THE PRESENT SURFACE OF THE VALLEY. 

The lowland through the heart of California known as the Great 
Valley, whose origin as a depression appears, in accordance with the 
facts just outlined, to date well back into Tertiary time, owes its 
actual surface to more recent action and to more obvious agents. 
That surface is, in brief, a combination of the surfaces of a great 
number of alluvial fans, originating at the mouths of the canyons 
through which the tributary streams discharge from the mountains 
into the valley. 

Each stream that enters the valley brings with it from the moun- 
tains a greater or a smaller quantity of sand, gravel, or bowlders. 
All or a part of this burden is deposited in the valley, and the deposit 
constitutes the alluvial fan of that particular stream. The apex of 
each fan is the mouth of the stream canyon. From this apex it 
broadens and flattens until it coalesces at its periphery with other 
fans. The stream that built it usually spreads delta-wise over it, 
discharging through a number of diverging channels into the trough 
of the valley. As a rule these spreading distributaries flow upon the 
surface of the fan, but some of the major streams from the San 
Joaquin northward are incised into the valley floor in trenches 
100 feet or less in depth. This must be due to special conditions, 
such as recent change in volume of stream flow or in elevation of 
the land relative to the sea — conditions not yet understood. 



&S6L6GIC or i i i\i.. g 1 

The fans of different portions of the valley indicate by their mass 
and form the conditions of volume and distribution of rainfall under 
which they originated. The west-side fans, particularly (hose in 

the middle of the valley and near its southern end, are steep and 
symmetrical, forms characteristic of areas of low rainfall very 
irregularly distributed. The east-side fans arc of much greater mass 
and lower slope because the rivers that built them have a greater 
flow of somewhat less irregular character. The Kern River fan has 
grown westward against the McKittrick hills until it has isolated the 
Buena Vista basin south of it. Before dams had been built, inter- 
fering with the natural conditions here, a shallow lake occupied the 
present site of Buena Vista reservoir and the old bed of Kern Lake, 
and during seasons of unusual rainfall there was overflow northward 
toward Tulare Lake. The basin occupied by Tulare Lake is likewise 
due to the aridity of the valley and the consequent development of 
Kings River and Los Gatos Creek fans. South of the low, broad 
ridge due to the coalescing of these two fans is the Tulare basin, in 
which a part of the surplus water of the streams south of it accumu- 
lates. As a consequence of the flatness of this basin and the very 
erratic character of the supply that reaches it, the lake fluctuates 
widely in area during a series of years. 

Northward from Tulare Lake basin the discharge of the streams is 
sufficiently great and sufficiently constant to prevent the formation 
of delta-dams like those formed by Kings River and Los Gatos Creek 
fans, and an open channel is maintained from the San Joaquin north- 
ward to Suisun Bay. 

Along the lower course of the San Joaquin, conditions resemble 
those in Sacramento Valley — that is, they are the conditions usual 
along rivers draining humid rather than arid regions. Large areas 
are subject to regular annual inundation during the spring floods or 
are protected jfrom this inundation only by artificial levees. The 
greater part of the water that inundates this area is supplied by the 
Sacramento system, but the greatest overflow occurs when the floods 
appear in the two systems at the same time. 

The essential fact as to the present valley surface is that it is a 
direct result of stream action. It has everywhere been built up by 
deposition from the streams or from the fluctuating lakes that are 
themselves dependent upon the streams ; and it is formed of materials 
brought by the streams from the mountainous portions of their 
drainage basins where they are eroding instead of depositing. 
Throughout the south end of the valley its surface is a combination 
of alluvial fan surfaces; at the north end of the valley these fans, 
less strikingly and typically developed because of the greater pre- 
cipitation there, still predominate along the valley borders, while the 
center of the valley is a flood plain of the usual type. 



22 GROUND WATER IK SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

SOILS. 

As the valley surface has been molded by stream action into its 
present form, so the soils of the valley represent deposition by the 
rivers of materials washed out of the mountains from which they 
drain. This soil is modified in various ways after the streams have 
deposited it — by disintegration of the rock particles where the 
streams have left them, by the mingling of the products of vegetal 
decay where vegetation is abundant, or by chemical processes in 
place, such as the formation of hardpans or the accumulation of 
alkalies; but the soil foundation, so to speak, reflects pretty closely 
the type of rock outcropping in the drainage basin of the stream on 
whose delta the particular soils are found. 

For example, the soils of the deltas of Kern and Kings rivers are in 
large part of granitic derivation, because granitic rocks form the 
greater part of the mountain drainage basin of each of these rivers. 
Their coarseness and the distribution of the coarse and fine phases 
are to a certain extent matters of accident, due to the location of 
present or past channels of the streams across their deltas; but in 
steep alluvial fans the coarser and more bowldery soils occur nearer 
the mountains. In the fans of those east-side streams from the 
Merced northward, whose lower courses at least are cut through late 
Tertiary formations containing a large percentage of lavas and derived 
products, other types of soil result. 

The west-side streams, draining mountains practically free from 
granites and similar rocks but with soft serpentines, shales, and sand- 
stones, deposit fragments of those rocks in their alluvial fans, and the 
result is a soil type entirely different from that of the east side and 
south end of the valley. These shale, clay, serpentine, and sand- 
stone fragments disintegrate much more quickly than the granitic 
sands that contain large proportions of such resistant minerals as 
quartz and feldspar, and the result is the mellow, loamy soil with its 
fragments of siliceous shale that makes much of the west slope of the 
valley and is so productive whenever water can be applied to it. 

Soil of another general class occurs at a few localities along the east 
side of the valley. This soil is not of alluvial fan origin, brought into 
the valley by the streams from the surrounding mountains, but is 
due to decay in place of the rocks underlying the particular area 
where it occurs. Soils of this class are found northeast of Fresno 
beyond Clovis, and in some of the coves like Clark Valley north of 
Reedley, and perhaps in other foothill valleys in the Portersville- 
Lindsay district. Some of the rolling wheat lands found in a zone 
along the eastern border of Stanislaus and Merced counties may also 
be regarded as derived from the decay of rock in place rather than 
from inwashed alluvial fan material, but as the rock is itself a late 



SI KIWri: WATKKS. 23 

Tertiary sediment differing but little from the alluvial fan materia] 
of the same area, the classification of < he soils as residual rather t han 
colluvial has no practical significance. 

Another type of soil is neither more nor less than fine beach sand. 
This type is besl developed in a zone surrounding Tulare Lake, and 
it represents the shore lines of that water body when it contained 
much more water than at present. In places this sand has been 
reworked by the wind — blown into inconspicuous dunes, as in tin 4 
'•Sand Ridge" near the Kings-Kern county line. 

Finally, there are the soils of the "tulc lands" and the "islands," 
the areas subject to overflow particularly along the lower course of 
the San Joaquin and its tributaries, but present, although less exten- 
sively developed, in other areas. These lands are black loams or 
adobes or impure peats, and when reclaimed are particularly adapted 
to certain classes of crops. 

The Bureau of Soils of the Department of Agriculture has made 
detailed surveys of certain areas in San Joaquin Valley as the begin- 
ning of a general soil mapping of the entire valley. The sheets 
at present available cover areas about Stockton, Modesto, Turlock, 
Madera, Fresno, Hanford, Portersville, and Bakersfield. In the text 
of the reports and in the maps that accompany them, the soils are 
classified in great detail on a physical basis, and by a proper study of 
this classification the geologic origin of most of the soils may be 
traced. 

Another task undertaken by the Bureau of Soils, of even greater 
immediate value, is the mapping of the alkalies. 1 This work is de- 
signed to afford suggestions as to the management and reclamation 
of alkali soils and prevention of the rise of the alkalies. When it 
has been completed for the entire valley it will be of great service in 
preventing sales of worthless lands to purchasers who buy in good 
faith with the idea of establishing homes. Many sales of this kind 
have been made in the valley, and any work that will tend to reduce 
their number is to be welcomed. 

SURFACE WATERS. 

The streams of San Joaquin Valley and their characteristics have 
been referred to incidentally in the preceding pages. These char- 
acteristics depend upon the physical geography of south-central Cali- 
fornia and the control which it exerts over climate. All of the peren- 
nial and important streams flow from the Sierra. 

Precipitation within the Sierra district depends upon altitude, 
latitude, and longitude. Up to a certain limit precipitation increases 

1 Mackie, W. W., Reclamation of white-ash land affected with alkali at Fresno, California: U. S. Dept. 
Agr. Bur. Soils Bull. 42, 1907. 



24 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



with increase of altitude; beyond that limit, which at the crossing of 
the Central Pacific is at Cisco, 6,000 feet above sea and 1,000 feet 
below the summit, precipitation decreases. Rainfall decreases also 
southward along the summit of the Sierra as well as in the valleys; 
and in those parts of the range, principally its southern portion, where 
altitude does not increase regularly from the western toward the 
eastern margin, so that the effect of longitude is not obscured by that 
of altitude, vegetation indicates less rainfall as the desert border of 
the range is approached. 

Under these conditions, therefore, it is evident that the greatest 
discharge per unit of area will come from those streams with the 
greater proportion of their drainage basins farthest north, in the high 
part of the Sierra but west of the summit. 

The following table has been compiled from tables of discharge in 
United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Papers 298 and 299 
and unpublished records for July, August, and September, 1912, and 
shows the yearly discharge, in second-feet per square mile for certain 
rivers draining the western slope of the Sierra. Values are for the 
year ending September 30. 

Table 1. — Yearly discharge in second-feet per square mile of certain California rivers. 



1905-6 



1906-7 



1907- 



1908-9 



1909-10 



1910-11 



1911-12 



Kern River near Bakersfield 

Tule River at Portersville 

Kaweah River near Three Rivers.. 

Kings River near Sanger 

San Joaquin River near Friant 

Merced River near Merced Falls. . . 

Tuolumne River at Lagrange 

Stanislaus River at Knights Ferry. 

Calaveras River at Jenny Lind 

Mokelumne River near Clements. . 
Cosumnes River at Michigan Bar.. 

American River at Fairoaks 

Bear River at Van Trent 

Yuba River near Smartsville 

Feather River at Oroville 



1.08 
1.73 

2.88 
3.05 



0.805 

1.58 

2.18 



2.58 
3.24 
3.51 



2.70 
3.45 
4.13 



0.423 
.670 
.819 
.960 
.656 



2.90 



3.61 



3.45 
2.95 
4.11 
2.55 



4.15 
3.84 
5.10 
3.56 



1.03 
.396 

1.05 
.988 

1.80 

1.32 



1.02 
1.50 
2.13 
2.23 
2.45 
1.89 
2.45 
2.81 
■1.80 
2.48 
1.70 
3.32 
2.78 
4.41 
2.81 



0.435 



0.590 
.631 
1.45 
2.24 
3.00 
2.69 
3.15 
3.43 
2.34 
3.30 
2.31 
3.98 
2.70 
4.00 
2.66 



0.247 
.258 
.548 
.764 
.878 
.651 
.967 
.863 
.219 
.843 
.356 
.911 
.460 

1.28 
.791 



a 11 months, October missing. 

An examination of the above table shows that there is a general 
tendency toward increase in the discharge per square mile northward 
from the Kern to the Feather. Except Kern, Merced, Calaveras, 
Cosumnes, Bear, and Feather rivers the streams occupy comparable 
positions on the western slope of the Sierra and drain the areas of 
maximum precipitation for their respective latitudes. The rather 
regular increase northward may therefore be assigned with confidence 
to the effect of latitude on precipitation. The drainage basins of 
both the Feather and the Kern extend into the very eastern part of 
the Sierra beyond the zone of maximum precipitation, and the 
inferiority of run-off from their basins as compared with that of 
neighboring streams may be assigned, in part at least, to the effect of 



SURFACE WATERS. 



•J:, 



Longitude thai is, their basins extend so far cast as to l>c measurably 
affected by desert conditions. Altitude may also be a factor since 
the Feather and the Kern drain portions of the range which arc not 

so high as sonic of the intermediate areas. The deficiencies of 
Merced, Calaveras, Cosumnes, and Bear rivers may be in part 
ascribed to altitude and in part to longitude as the major portion of 
their areas does not extend to the summit of the range. The dis- 
charge of the principal east-side streams and the areas drained by 
each are summarized in the following table, compiled from tho records 
of the State Engineering Department of California and from those of 
the United States Geological Survey. 

The number of years of observations from which the average dis- 
charge was determined is also given. As the length of these records 
varies from four to twenty-two years it is obvious that they differ in 
value; but on the whole they supply a concrete indication of tho 
average amount of water discharged into the San Joaquin Valley 
annually by its chief streams. 

Table 2. — Mean annual run-off of streams from east side of San Joaquin Valley. 



Stream. 



Years of record. 



Length 

of 
record. 



Drain- 
age 

area. 


Mean 
annual 
run-off. 


Square 

miles. 

2,345 

266 

520 


Acre-feet. 
695,000 
137,000 
506,000 


1,740 


1,940,000 


1,640 
268 


1,944,000 
111,000 


. 122 

166 
1,090 
1, 548 
1,035 


33,100 

47, 200 

1,200,000 

2,050,000 

1,390,000 


395 
631 
283 


351,000 
988,000 
172,000 


536 


400,000 


12,585 


11,964,300 



Second- 
feet per 
square 
mile. 



Kern and Tulare Lake basins: 

Kern River near Bakersfield 

Tule River near Portersville 

Kaweah River near Three 
Rivers. 

Kings River near Sanger 

San Joaquin River proper: 

San Joaquin River near Friant. . 

Chowchilla Creek near Buch- 
anan. 

Mariposa Creek at foothills 

Bear Creek at foothills 

Merced River near Merced Falls. 

Tuolumne River near Lagrange. 

Stanislaus River at Knights 
Ferry. 

Calaveras River at Jenny Lind. . 

Mokelumne River near Clements 

Dry or Jackson Creek at foot- 
hills. 

Cosumnes River at Michigan 
Bar. 

Total 



1879-1882, 1893-1906, 1908-1912 

1901-1912 

1903-1912 



1895-1912. 



Years. 
22 
11 



17 



1878-1882, 1896-1901, 1907-1913 
1878-1884 



1878-1884 , 

1878-1884 

1878-1882, 1901-1912 

1878-1882, 1895-1913 

1878-1882, 1895-1900, 1903-1913 



1908-1912 

1878-1881, 1901, 1903-1913. 
1878-1884 



15 



15 



1907-1913. 



0.409 

.711 

1.34 

1.54 

1.64 
.571 

.375 

.393 

1.52 

1.18 

1.86 

1.23 

2.16 
.841 

1.03 



Note.— Compiled from Water-Supply Paper 299. The records for 1878 to 1884 were collected by the 
State Engineering Department of California; many of them, however, were estimates based on run-off 
of adjacent streams. These estimated records have been omitted from the above compilation when 
records for other years were available. 



The high-water period of the Sierra streams comes during the late 
spring and early summer months, when the snow accumulated in the 
winter is melting most rapidly from the mountains; the low-water 
flow comes during the late summer and fall months after the snows 
are gone and before the winter rains have begun. These characteris- 
tics are illustrated in the following table of monthly discharge of 



26 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



Kings River for 1906, as determined by the United States Geological 
Survey: 1 

Table 3. — Monthly discharge of Kings River near Sanger, 1906. 



Month. 



Discharge in second-feet. 


Maximum. 


Minimum. 


Mean. 


25,500 


205 


2,360 


2,150 


792 


1,150 


21,000 


1,220 


5,240 


7,760 


2,960 


4,720 


16,800 


3,930 


10, 700 


26,600 


8,320 


17,100 


22, 400 


8,180 


16,300 


7,900 


1,870 


4,300 


2,020 


682 


1,120 


682 


385 


516 


610 


330 


397 


2,230 


330 


700 



Total in 
acre-feet. 



January... 
February.. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 
October. . . 
November. 
December. 



144,000 

63,900 

322,000 

281,000 

658,000 

1,020,000 

1,000,000 

264,000 

66,600 

31,700 

23, 600 

43,000 



Each of the major streams discharges from the mountains upon the 
eastern edge of the valley in a single channel, but after reaching the 
valley it usually divides into a number of branches, thus spreading 
over its delta. This characteristic is most marked in the streams that 
flow into the southern end of the valley, for many of the northern 
tributaries are incised in the valley floor and are thus confined 
between definite banks. This distribution is much more pronounced 
during the high-water period of early summer than at other seasons 
of the year. A main channel of sufficient capacity to carry the low- 
water flow proves inadequate during the flood period, and there is 
then overflow into the numerous subsidiary channels. 

The natural habit of all of the main streams has of course been 
extensively modified by irrigation. Canal systems now take from 
the channels practically all of the low-water flow and an important 
percentage of the maximum early summer flow. These systems have 
been described by Grunsky. 2 

The west-side streams are practically negligible as factors in the 
San Joaquin Valley water supply. Only a few of them are perennial, 
and the late summer flow of these is so slight that a few acres at most 
can be irrigated by their use. A trifling amount of irrigation of this 
type is accomplished by utilizing the waters from Los Gatos Creek, 
Cantua Creek, and others. 

i U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 213, p. 159, 1907. 

2 Grunsky, C E., U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 17, 18, and 19. These papers are no longer 
available for distribution, but they may be consulted in libraries. 



OCCURRENCE AND UTILIZATION OF GROUND WATER. 

By W. C. Mendeniiai.i,. 
ORIGIN OF THE GROUND WATER. 

The ground water of San Joaquin Valley has precisely the same 
origin as its surface water — namely, the rainfall and snowfall in the 
drainage basins tributary to the valley. It is in reality simply that 
portion of the surface water that sinks into the sands and gravels of 
the valley floor and makes the rest of its journey seaward by slow 
percolation through the pores between the sand grains. 

One of three things happens to the water that reaches the earth's 
surface as precipitation: (1) It returns directly to the air by evapora- 
tion from plant, soil, or water surfaces; or (2) it flows to the sea in 
surface streams; or (3) it sinks into the ground and joins the body of 
water that saturates the soil particles below the ground-water level. 
It is with the latter part of the precipitation on the nearly 32,000 
square miles of area included in San Joaquin Valley and the 
mountain watershed tributary to it that we have to deal. 

In the outline of the geologic history of the valley it has been 
pointed out that its entire surface is made up of the surfaces of con- 
tiguous alluvial fans, and that the valley is underlain to a depth that 
can not be determined accurately, but that doubtless runs into thou- 
sands of feet, by porous, unconsolidated, alluvial-fan material, 
mingled, in some areas, with lake deposits. This material has been 
transported from the mountains to the valley by the agency of run- 
ning water. Many times its own volume of water has passed through 
and over it in the course of its removal from the mountains to the 
valley. It was deposited by and in water and has been more or less 
continuously saturated ever since. 

A large but quite undeterminable portion of the run-off from the 
mountains each year sinks and joins the ground water. Of the 
3,300,000 acre-feet discharged annually into the valley south of the 
Kings River-San Joaquin divide, only the small portion that spills 
northward from Kings River itself reaches the sea over the surface, 
because there has been no outflow from Tulare Lake for forty years. 
The greater part evaporates or sinks to join the underground supply. 
Northward from Kings River the surface waters are greater in 
volume than south of it and serve effectually to keep the sands and 
gravels beneath them saturated. 

27 



28 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

UNDERGROUND CIRCULATION. 

Ground waters near the surface usually move slowly in the direc- 
tion of the surface slope and at rates that vary with the gradient 
of the slope and the coarseness of the material through which they 
percolate. The freedom of the outlet by which they escape is also 
important. They may be ponded by a restricted outlet just as 
surface waters may. Measurements of rates of ground-water move- 
ments in San Joaquin Valley are not available, but facts stated 
in the following paragraph indicate pretty plainly the conditions 
that probably prevail: 

1. The alluvial fans that make up the valley floor are generally of 
low slope and fine material. The fans of the Canada de las Uvas and 
of San Emigdio Creek, at the south end of the valley, and of Pala 
Prieta and Los Gatos creeks on the west side are exceptions; but the 
streams that have produced them contribute so small a proportion 
of the ground waters that they may be disregarded. 2. The general 
slope of the lowest line of the valley, from the south to the north, is 
not only not continuous, in that it is interrupted by ridges like that 
north of the Tulare basin, but it averages only about 1 foot to the mile, 
a very low gradient for a semiarid region. 3. The wells drilled 
throughout the valley prove that the sediments underlying it are all 
fine. 4. The surface outlet of the San Joaquin and Sacramento 
drainage is by way of Suisun Bay and the straits of Carquinez to San 
Francisco Bay; but the straits are restricted, and it is not probable 
that bedrock lies far beneath the surface in their vicinity. In short, 
there is no adequate outlet for the ground waters of the Great Valley, 
which is canoe-shaped, with only a notch in the rim at the straits 
through which the surface waters spill. All these conditions 
favor slow movement of the ground waters about the borders 
and at the ends of the valley, with their practical stagnation along 
the lower San Joaquin because there is no adequate outlet for them 
there. To be sure, capillarity and evaporation afford some slight 
escape for the ground waters as they approach the surface in their 
slow movement along the valley axis. The great alkali areas of 
the west slope and of the valley trough indicate escape of ground 
waters, because it is by this escape that the alkalies are concentrated 
at the surface; but the outlet provided in this way is of slight 
consequence when compared with the total body of ground waters. 

The belief that there is little movement in the subsurface waters 
of the lower San Joaquin is strengthened by a consideration of their 
chemical characteristics. Some of the ground waters of the upper 
deltas of the east side are among the purest waters of this type known, 
while those from the shallow flowing wells of the bottom of Tulare 
Lake and from the deeper wells of the north end of the valley are so 



UNDERGROUND ciiuti ation. ^> ( .) 

heavily charged with mineral matter as not to be potable or suitable 
for irrigation purposes. Ground waters dissolve the soluble minerals 
from the rock fragments — the clay, sand, or gravel particles with 
which they are in contact. The amount thus dissolved depends upon 
the chemical combinations in which the minerals exist, some being 
much more soluble than others, and upon the length of time during 
which the waters are in contact with them. In general, the alkalies 
in the sands and gravels of the east side are in the most resistant form, 
the silicates of the granitic debris from the Sierra; the alkalies of the 
sands and gravels of the west side are in less resistant form, the sul- 
phates and carbonates of the Cretaceous and Tertiary shales and 
sandstones; hence the ground waters of the high parts of the east 
slopes of the valley, which move with comparative rapidity, are 
much purer than the waters from similar situations on the west side. 
Furthermore, the volume of water poured out upon the east-side 
fans is many times greater than that discharged upon the west side, 
so that the alkalies dissolved are greatly diluted. But down in the 
trough of the valley, especially near its north end, the ground waters 
contain a much larger percentage of salts, even than those of the west 
side. If there were rapid circulation of ground waters here, this con- 
dition should not exist, for the dissolved salts should be gradually 
carried out. The fact that the waters are highly mineralized is 
regarded then as additional evidence of sluggish circulation, or per- 
haps practical stagnation. 

QUANTITY OF GROUND WATER. 

Little need be said of the quantity of ground water in the 
valley, for two reasons: The first is that although it is clear that the 
quantity is enormous, it is not possible to estimate it with any exact- 
ness; the second is that the actual quantity is not of so much impor- 
tance in its use as its accessibility and the rapidity with which it is 
restored when withdrawn. 

The area of the valley is about 11,500 square miles. The depth of 
the sands and gravels which are saturated with the ground waters is 
probably not less than a mile at the maximum, and may be much 
more. The average depth is equally unknown, but wells 1,000 or 
2,000 feet deep, or even more, that are scattered throughout the val- 
ley, do not reach the bottom of the unconsolidated sands and gravels ; 
so it may safely be assumed to be one-quarter of a mile and more. 
At this depth, nearly 3,000 cubic miles of sands, gravels, and clays 
are saturated with ground water, and if the porosity is 20 per cent 
the conclusion is reached that 600 cubic miles of water underlies the 
valley — certainly both a sufficiently conservative and a sufficiently 
startling estimate. But this includes waters of all qualities, some not 
usable, and some lying at great depths and not accessible. 



30 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

ACCESSIBILITY AND AVAILABILITY OF GROUND WATER. 

One of the most important elements in the cost of ground water, 
of course, is its accessibility, by which is generally meant the depth 
at which it stands beneath the surface; but the depth of boring 
necessary to develop it and, if pumped, the amount that it is drawn 
down when the pumps are in operation are also important elements. 

The cheapest waters in general are those that flow out at the sur- 
face, even though deep wells may be necessary to develop them and 
the initial cost may therefore be great. But these waters may not 
always be most available, because they are to be had only in the lower 
parts of the valley, where, because of climatic conditions and alka- 
linity of soil, many of the lands are less valuable than those farther 
up the slopes. Generally speaking, about the borders of the valley 
the ground waters lie at the shallowest depths in the deltas and at 
the greatest depths in the interareas. The flood channels and the 
irrigation ditches are the lines along which recharge of the ground 
waters is effected; hence in their vicinity the ground-water level lies 
near the surface and the pumping lift is at a minimum. 

Beneath the higher parts of the west-side slopes, unfortunately, 
where water is most needed, it is not accessible. The conditions 
here illustrate well the dependence of the ground water upon local 
surface supply. Surface run-off is most limited in this area and the 
ground water lies at too great depth for profitable utilization. 

DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER. 

The development of ground water in the valley is as yet in its 
infancy. It does not compare in intensity with that in southern 
California, where, with an irrigated district of perhaps a quarter of 
a million acres, there are nearly 3,000 flowing wells, costing about 
$675,000 and yielding nearly 200 cubic feet of water per second, and 
at least 1,500 pumping plants in which $2,500,000 or more is 
invested, by which an average of nearly 300 cubic feet per second of 
water is produced. Other minor wells increase the investment, but 
add little to the product. The total estimated investment in the 
development of ground water, exclusive of the distribution systems, 
is about $5,000,000 in this restricted district and the water produced 
is approximately 500 cubic feet per second. For comparison with 
this development south of the Tehachapi, the following estimates 
have been prepared from the records obtained by the United States 
Geological Survey in 1905-1907 to indicate the relatively meager 
development in San Joaquin Valley at that time. 



DEVELOPMENT 01 GROUND WATER, 31 

Table 4, — Qrourukwater development in San Joaquin Valley in 1906. 



County. 


Num- 
ber oi 
arte- 
sian 
wells. 


Kst i- 
mated 

COS!. 


Esl i- 
mated 

yield. 


Num- 
ber of 
pump- 
ing 

plants. 


Est i- 

mated 

cost. 

well and 

plant. 


Esl i- 

mated 

capacity. 


Estimated 

output 
(one-sixth 
capacity). 


Total cost. 


Total 
yield. 


Kem 


112 

r_'i 

40 

31 

133 

5 


$161,400 
189,968 

112,959 
40.000 
13, 237 
18,013 
3, B30 


Scc.-ft. 
78. if. 
23.31 
19.3 
7.5 
7.81 
7.95 
1 


104 

191 

3 

28 
17 
43 
9 
202 


$138,632 

244,098 

1,530 


8ec.-ft. 

25.-..SI 

li 12. 72 

1.34 

30 

40.8 

40.93 

8.35 

250 


42.64 
a 54. 24 
.24 
5 

6.8 

6.82 

1.39 

41.67 


$300,032 
431. (Mill 
114,489 


Sec.Jt. 

in,, i 


--- 

I? a 


77. :..-» 
19.54 
12.60 


Madera 

Merced 

Stanislaus 


44,931 

46,700 


58, 168 
94,713 


14.61 
14.77 
2.39 


San Joaquin. . 


123,836 




41.67 
















522 


569, 407 


140. 33 


597 


599, 727 


759. 98 


158. 80 


1,001,468 


299.13 



a One-third capacity. 

The data on which these estimates were based were neither so 
complete nor so satisfactory as those used in southern California, 
and therefore the conclusions must be regarded as suggestive rather 
than as accurate in detail. As an example of one of the weak points 
in the estimates, attention may be called to the column in which the 
output of the pumping plants is recorded. Generally these plants 
are used in the irrigation of alfalfa or of garden products. Some 
of them are independent sources of water; others are auxiliary to 
gravity waters and are used only when the latter are not available; 
some are in the southern part of the valley, where the rainfall is 
less than 5 inches; others are in the northern part of the valley, where 
the rainfall is more than twice as heavy, and where on this account 
less water need be applied artificially. Of course the pumps are not 
in constant operation anywhere, but the percentage of the year that 
they are run varies with local conditions. No exact estimate of 
this percentage can be made, but it has been assumed in the estimates 
that the pumps are operated the equivalent of two months continu- 
ously, hence, that their output for the year is one-sixth of what it 
would be were they in constant operation. This estimate is more 
likely to be too high than too low. In one county, Tulare, which 
includes the Portersville, Exeter, and Lindsay citrus districts, a 
larger factor is used. Most of the pumps in this county are used 
for citrus irrigation, and it is assumed here that their output is one- 
third of what it would be were they in continuous operation. This 
estimate should not be excessive. 

Accepting the estimates, then, as they are, we find that in San 
Joaquin Valley there were in 1905-6 between 500 and 600 flowing 
wells and a somewhat greater number of pumping plants, representing 
an investment between $1,000,000 and $1,500,000 and yielding in 
the neighborhood of 300 cubic feet per second. The number of wells 
then was about one-fourth that of southern California, the investment 
one-third, and the product about one-half, although the total irrigable 



32 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

area of San Joaquin Valley is nearly 10 times that of the southern 
field and the ground waters available are probably in similar ratio. 
This comparison, even though the figures upon which it is based are 
not complete, gives a graphic idea of the development that may yet 
be accomplished in central California by the full use of the ground- 
water resources. 

A later review of ground-water development and conditions has 
been prepared by S. T. Harding and Ralph D. Robertson. 1 Their 
conclusions, based largely on the data herein presented but supple- 
mented by some later statistical information, may be quoted: 

It is estimated in this report [Water-Supply Paper 222] that the ultimate amount 
of ground water developed may be 10 times that then developed in southern 
California, or 5,000 cubic feet per second. At that time [1905-6] about 300 cubic feet 
per second was being developed in the San Joaquin Valley. This has been more than 
doubled since. If 5,000 cubic feet per second is obtained for six months of the year, 
it will equal a total of 1,810,000 acre-feet, or approximately 15 per cent of the total 
mean annual discharge of the streams at the edge of the valley. Considering the gen- 
erally open structure of the subsoils, the seepage of this amount or more can be con- 
sidered as reasonable. Increase in gravity irrigation should increase the quantity 
reaching ground supplies. Ground water in sufficient quantity for irrigation can be 
obtained in all parts of the valley proper, except in the west-side areas. In the lower 
valley floor artesian flow can be secured, although this is not extensively used for 
irrigation. While the quantities available decrease and the lifts required increase 
from the valley trough to the east-side foothills, the value of the products which can 
be grown increases, so that the highest development may be found in the regions of 
smallest ground- water supply. As pumping for irrigation requires both an initial cost 
and an operation expense that are plainly evident to irrigators, the pumped water is 
generally used more economically than that from gravity canals. As a large portion of 
the water at present pumped is used to supplement the water received from canals, 
it is not reasonable to expect the area irrigated from ground water will be entirely 
additional to that irrigated from canals. While any estimate of the total possibilities 
of the ground supplies must be liable to much uncertainty, the area eventually 
irrigated wholly by this means will certainly be several times that at present 
supplied and may reach a total of 600,000 acres. While use of ground water 
will be rather general throughout the lower valley floor and east-side plains, the 
largest use will be where gravity supplies are the least accessible, as in San Joaquin 
County, or where supplemental pump supplies are the most profitable, as in the 
Fresno district. 

VAIjTJE of the waters for irrigation. 

Although the ground waters of the valley have been known and 
used in minor ways practically ever since its settlement, it is never- 
theless true that the movement for their extensive utilization as 
sources of irrigation supply is a late phase of development, for many 
of the earlier attempts to make use of them resulted in failure. 

Among the causes that have contributed to past failures may be 
mentioned: Application of the developed waters to poor lands; 

1 Harding, S. T., and Robertson, R. D., Irrigation resources of central California: California Conserva- 
tion Comm, Rept. for 1912, pp. 172-240. 



\ A ill OF CHE w \ I BBS FOB LKRIG \ I l<>\. 33 

wasteful methods of application; dependence on the continuance <>f 
artesian flow; lack of adjustment bo the greater cost of pumped 
waters as compared with that of the gravity waters upon which 
reliance has heretofore been placed; lack of intensive farming meth- 
ods and of proper adaptation of crops bo soil and locality; boo large 
farm units; and, in a few cases, inadequate transportation facilities. 

The most potent, of all these causes has been the prevalence of tho 
easy-going methods of the pioneer -the careless, wasteful habits that 
are a direct inheritance From the grazing and grain-raising period 
which has not', vet passed from the valley. Land and such waters as 
are utilized have cost little heretofore in San Joaquin Valley, and 
things t hat cost little are lightly valued, no matter what their intrinsic 
worth. This spirit is fostered by the immonso holdings of some of 
the larger companies. Few of these companies practice intensive 
cultivation, though their lands are among the best in the valley. 
Usually hay and grain are raised to feed through tho dry season the 
stock that is in pasture during the grazing period. But although 
not as a rule intensely cultivated and by no means producing tho 
maximum of food products or supporting the largest possible popu- 
lation, most of the large holdings are more carefully and successfully 
managed than the quarter section of the small farmer. 

Despite all obstacles and discouragements, however, the use of 
ground waters is gradually extending. Special high-priced products 
like the citrus fruits of the Portersville-Lindsay district justify heavy 
expenditures for production, and ground water has long been success- 
fully used in this section. The success of pumping water to great 
heights to irrigate the specially early citrus fruits of this region is fully 
demonstrated, the acreage devoted to these products is constantly 
extending, and the yield is increasing rapidly as groves planted 
recently approach maturity. 

Irrigation by means of pumped ground water is also proving suc- 
cessful under the entirely different conditions that exist about 
Lathrop, Lodi, and Stockton, in San Joaquin County. Several hun- 
dred small pumping plants are in operation in this county, the greater 
number of which have been installed within a few years. By their 
use alfalfa, vineyards, and varied crops of fruits and vegetables are 
successfully grown. Windmills also are extensively used, often with 
auxiliary gas engines attached to the same well. The area in wdiich 
this type of irrigation is practiced is closely settled, houses are neat, 
prosperous looking, and well cared for, the villages and cities which 
supply the country trade and market the products are flourishing, 
and altogether there is every evidence of successful endeavor and 
abundant prosperity. 

Still other communities whose existence depends upon the utiliza- 
tion of ground waters are the recently established colonies in Kings, 
98205°— wsp 398—16 3 



34 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

Tulare, and Kern counties, of which the Corcoran settlement is a 
type. This particular locality is within the artesian basin, and a 
group of deep wells yield flowing waters which are utilized for all pur- 
poses. As a result, successful dairy farms have been established, 
sugar beets are raised, and a factory has been built for the manufac- 
ture of sugar from them. 

It is thus evident that there is a gradual awakening to the value of 
the ground waters and their usability, although in many localities the 
advocate of the use of these waters is still met by the statement that 
they can not be developed and applied at a profit under agricultural 
conditions as they now exist. It is true that the pumped waters are 
more expensive than the ditch waters, whose cost as a rule is very 
low. The average cost of current for pumping the water used by the 
Kern County Land Co. near Bakersfield, with an average lift of 30 
feet, is $1.29 per second-foot for 24 hours on the basis of a charge of 
15 cents per horsepower per hour for electric current, whereas the 
charge for surface water in the same locality is 75 cents per second- 
foot for 24 hours — that is, the current for pumping the ground water 
costs more than the surface water. When it is remembered, however, 
that almost universally in San Joaquin Valley water is used in great 
excess, to the immediate and ultimate injury not only of the lands to 
which it is applied but of adjacent lands; that on many of the delta 
lands there is as yet but little intensive cultivation, and that therefore 
the margin of profit is low; that there is an important proportion of 
large holdings and absentee ownership dependent upon inefficient hired 
labor; and above all that, in the midst of the communities in which 
it is asserted that pumped waters can not be profitably used in agri- 
culture individuals may generally be found who are using them with 
striking success ; when all of these things are taken into consideration, 
it may be asserted with confidence that the greatest increase in the 
agricultural development in this valley in the future will be brought 
about by a utilization of the ground-water supplies, whose develop- 
ment has only begun and whose value is as yet but faintly realized. 

It will probably be true in the future, as it has been in the past, that 
side by side with successful attempts at the utilization of ground 
waters will be unsuccessful attempts, and that the general move- 
ment for full realization upon this asset will be checked here and 
there by conspicuous failures widely advertised. This is a condi- 
tion that always arises in any general advance. Each failure 
should teach its individual lesson as to a particular way not to under- 
take development or to apply water, and should not be interpreted 
as an argument against the usefulness of the resource under proper 
conditions, for the fundamental facts remain that ground waters 
exist beneath the floor of San Joaquin Valley in immense volume and 
that over wide areas they are of high quality and very accessible. 



VALUE OF THE WATERS FOB IRRIGATION. 85 

They arc certain, therefore, to be widely used in the future, and l>\ 
their use hundreds of thousands of acres now arid and unproductive 
will be brought to yield handsomely. 

The development of the ground wains under the conditions thai 
exist at present, when the chief argument against them is their cost 
as compared with that of the surface 4 waters which have set the stand- 
ard, should follow two or three lines. 

In the first place, pumping plants in the higher parts of the delta 
lands should be used as adjuncts to insufficient gravity supplies. The 
supply of the gravity waters during the flood months of May, June, 
and July is from 2 or 3 to 15 or 20 times that available during the 
months of August, September, and October, when many crops are 
maturing. As a consequence many owners of late rights to gravity 
waters secure a portion of the flow during the early high-water 
period, but are left without it during the low-water period, when 
there is only sufficient to satisfy the earliest rights. Such owners 
often have enough gravity water for one or two early irrigations, but 
not more. Under present conditions, therefore, the maturing of late 
crops is a precarious matter with them, and they are confined prac- 
tically to those products which will yield returns when irrigated only 
in the spring or early summer. This is a serious handicap, as it greatly 
limits the range of their agricultural activity and often condemns 
their land to idleness during half of the year. By the installation of 
pumping plants, to be operated only when gravity waters are not 
available, this handicap is removed, and yet the cost of irrigation is 
much less than where no surface waters are available and pumps 
must be operated continuously. 

In the second place, in districts that have a market for garden 
products or for those special farm products whose value and yield 
justify some expense in their production, as sweet potatoes, celery, 
asparagus, or onions, the small land owner can well afford to install 
an individual pumping plant independent of surface supplies. The 
same method will be successful with crops that require only one or 
two irrigations a year, as, for example, some of the fancy varieties 
of grapes that are now raised so profitably in the northern part of 
the valley. 

Another line to be followed in development is the utilization of 
flowing artesian waters. Along the axis of the valley is a zone with 
an area of about 4,300 square miles within which flowing, waters are 
available. Over perhaps two- thirds of this area the flowing waters 
are sufficiently pure to be suitable for use in irrigation. 

None of these lines along which it is suggested that ground waters 
may be used are experiments. Each has been followed successfully 
in some of the communities in the valley, although in other sections 
quite as favorably situated the investigator will be told that pumped 



36 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



or flowing waters can not be used profitably. Communities, like 
individuals, fall into ruts, acquire bad habits, and lose the power of 
initiative. In this condition they may overlook or fail to utilize 
some of their most valuable assets. 

In the course of this investigation nearly 4,000 wells in the valley 
have been examined and data collected as to depth, yield, cost, etc. 
Among them are many flowing wells. For most of the wells the data 
are incomplete, but from the records available the following averages 
have been determined : 

Table 5. — Average size, depth, yield, cost, etc., of flowing wells. 

Interest 
charge 

mSSr's 

inch per 

year. 



Kern... 
Kings.. 
Tulare.. 
Fresno. 
Merced . 













Annual 


Number 
aver- 


Average 
diameter 


Depth 

(feet). 


Yield 
(miner's 


Average 
cost. 


interest 
on cost 


aged. 


(inches). 


inches). « 


at 8 per 












cent. 


10 


10 


621 


53.3 


$1,545 


$123.60 


7 


9 


1,037 


30 


2,555 


204. 40 


32 


8 


745 


26 


1,711 


136. 88 


7 


8 


936 


20 


1,540 


123. 20 


16 


7 


350 


6J 


470 


37.60 



$2.30 
6.81 
5.26 
6.16 

6.84 



a A California miner's inch equals 0.02 second-foot. 

These averages are based upon the actual experience of owners of 
wells already drilled and flowing. They therefore have a definite 
value as a basis for estimating costs of artesian waters to be obtained 
as a result of future developments. They may be compared with 
the charge made on the Kern delta for gravity water, namely, 75 
cents per second-foot for 24 hours, equivalent to $5.47 per miner's 
inch per annum. 

In comment upon the table it is to be said that the Kern County 
average is too low, because it happens that among the wells for 
which sufficiently complete data exist for computing these averages 
there were one or two of exceptionally great yield that have unduly 
raised the average yield and reduced the cost, thereby giving a figure 
lower than that which will probably be realized in future develop- 
ment. 

It must be remembered further that the figures are based on the 
assumption that the entire year's flow will be utilized. This assump- 
tion can be realized only by the construction of reservoirs in which 
the water will be stored during the nonirrigating season for use 
when wanted. Such construction will add to the cost and will 
reduce the supply in three ways: (1) By a reduction of flow because 
of the increased height of delivery necessary to discharge into a res- 
ervoir; (2) through loss by evaporation from the surface of the 
reservoir; (3) through loss by seepage from the reservoir. 

The uncertainty as to the amount that will be delivered by any 
artesian well is another disturbing factor in making exact calcula- 



VALUE OF THE WATERS FOB IRRIGATION. 37 

(ions. The area within which flowing waters are procurable has been 
outlined with approximate accuracy, but the yield of any well can 
he determined only aft or the well has been sunk and the necessary 
capital invested in it. Some of the wells used in computations have 
delivered much more than the average supply and so have yielded 
exceptionally cheap waters; others have delivered less than the 
average, and their waters are correspondingly expensive. 

Another condition that must be realized is this: When the number 
of wells drawing from the artesian supply is greatly increased in any 
particular neighborhood, the wells interfere and the yield of each is 
lessened. When the maximum acreage is dependent on artesian 
flow under these conditions, the installation of pumping machinery 
may become necessary in order to insure the continuance of an ade- 
quate water supply. 

As against these disadvantages, which have been rather fully out- 
lined, as is essential in any frank and therefore useful discussion, are to 
be placed regularity and relative constancy of the supply and its avail- 
ability at all times, as compared with the fluctuations of surface waters 
unavailable except during the flood season to any but the owners of 
the oldest rights. An added advantage where the landowner owns 
his well is his complete control over his water supply. He may 
irrigate when and how he will, and thus most economically, and is not 
dependent upon the adjustment of supply among a number of users 
from a common source. 



QUALITY OF THE WATERS. 

By R. B. Dole. 
IMPORTANCE OF QUALITY. 

The wide range in the mineral content and consequently in the use- 
fulness of the ground waters of San Joaquin Valley makes it neces- 
sary to know their composition before undertaking water projects 
involving any considerable expenditure. Most of the surface run-off 
may be used indefinitely in irrigation without deleterious effect, and 
ground water nearly as good can be obtained in many parts of the 
region, while certain aquifers yield supplies abundant in quantity 
but so highly mineralized that they are poisonous to vegetation. In 
the estimation of the railroad locator the amount of dissolved solids 
throughout the entire area is such as to make the quality of the water 
supplies equal in importance to quantity. Softening plants are 
necessary on the west side, and railroads are obliged to haul water to 
several stations, where the available supplies are unfit for steaming. 
In further extension of railroads through some townships the diffi- 
culty of procuring supplies that can be rendered suitable for locomo- 
tives will doubtless make quality of water the determining factor in 
the location of tanks, stations, and roundhouses. The wineries, 
breweries, ice factories, and laundries also must have water of proper 
quality, and the establishment of paper mills, strawboard mills, 
starch factories, sugar works, and other water-consuming mills of 
industries closely related to modern farming will make the quality 
of this important raw material a still more pressing problem. At 
present the needs of irrigation turn attention to all possible sources, 
because the demands of intensive farming have so far exceeded the 
available surface supply that underground waters are largely utilized 
and are depended on exclusively in some districts. This rapidly 
increasing draft on the ground reservoirs will ultimately bring about 
complete utilization of all supplies that can be safely applied under 
careful supervision and improved methods of irrigation. 

Study of the chemical characteristics of water in this region is par- 
ticularly interesting because of the great variety of conditions that 
affect the mineral content. The east side of the valley, filled with 
alluvium derived from hard, difficultly soluble rocks and furnished 
with water from the granitics of the Sierra, yields supplies entirely 
distinct in composition from those of the alluvium of the west side, 
which has been washed down from the gypsiferous sedimentaries of 
38 



SOURCES OF DATA. 39 

die Const Range. The amount of rainfall decreases southward from 
that of the semihumid country around Suisun Bay to that of the 

arid region bl lower Kern County, the average annual precipitation 

at Lodi being about 18 inches, at Fresno 9 inches, and at Bakersfield 
only 5 inches. Both ground and surface waters are affected in 
composition not only by this progressive decrease of precipitation 
from north to south but also by the equally apparent difference in t be 
amount of water received by the two sides of the valley. As the total 
precipitation on the west slopes of the Sierra is much greater than 
that on the east side of the Coast Range the streams of the east side 
of the valley exceed those of the west side in size and number, and a 
proportionate difference in quantity of ground water is reflected in 
its composition. A relation between topography and quality is 
traceable in the low ridges of the deltas, which favor the deposition 
oi salts by confining strong solutions in small basins, thus establish- 
ing tracts where wells yield highly mineralized water. Changes in 
mineral content due to irrigation are shown by dilution of normal 
water in some sections and accumulation of alkali in others. The 
influence of these conditions of climate, geology, and economic devel- 
opment on the composition of the mineral matter makes study of the 
water instructive and pleasurable, while the agricultural and indus- 
trial interests that are involved render the results of great immediate 

value. 

SOURCES OF DATA. 

Most of the conclusions regarding the quality of the ground waters 
are based on the results of 400 partial assays made by the writer dur- 
ing the fall of 1910. Information regarding the effect of the waters 
in irrigation, steaming, and other uses was obtained by visiting about 
500 wells. The general plan of the field study was to travel back and 
forth across the axis of the valley and to test as many samples as pos- 
sible from wells of different depths near what was clearly recognized 
as the critical area — that along the axial line. Though this scheme 
was generally successful wells sufficiently varied in depth could not 
be found in some localities, and the onset of the rainy season finally 
prevented the completion of studies in Kern County. Fifty samples 
of water were analyzed by Mr. F. M. Eaton, of San Francisco, in order 
to supply more complete information regarding certain sources and 
to afford a check on the field assays. In addition a few waters were 
analyzed by Mr. Walton Van Winkle. The locations of the waters 
that have been tested are shown in Plate II (in pocket). 

The quality of the surface waters was so thoroughly investigated 
by Van Winkle and Eaton 1 that it was not necessary to make any 
further tests, and statements herein about the mineral content of the 
surface waters are based entirely on their work. 

1 Van Winkle, Walton, and Eaton, F. M., The quality of the surface waters of California: U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 237, 1910. 



40 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



Valuable knowledge regarding the composition of the ground 
waters is afforded by miscellaneous analyses performed at the agri- 
cultural experiment station of the University of California; as these 
analyses are in such form that it is not practicable to incorporate them 
in the general part of this report they are appended in a separate table. 
Special acknowledgment is due to Mr. Howard Stillman, engineer of 
tests, Southern Pacific Co., and to Mr. W. A. Powers, chief chemist 
of the Santa Fe Railway Co., for placing at the disposal of the Survey 
analyses of the water supplies along the rights of way of these rail- 
roads. 

CONDITIONS OF COLLECTION OF SAMPLES. 

Though the mineral content of water from shallow wells in humid 
regions is materially lessened by the dilution following heavy rainfall, 
an opposite effect is produced by similar rainfall in areas of low pre- 
cipitation because the water in a humid region percolates downward 
through layers that have been deprived of their easily soluble matter 
by long-continued leaching, whereas the sinking water on arid land 
dissolves the alkali in the upper soil and carries more or less of it into 
the wells, which ordinarily draw their supplies from below the belt of 
concentrated alkali. As the dry soils in arid regions are either highly 
absorbent or impervious occasional light rains do not affect shallow 
wells, but long-continued transmission of such nearly pure water, such 
as occurs near canals and in dry watercourses, removes the soluble 
salts from the ground so that shallow wells in the immediate vicinity 
yield better water than those farther away. Deep wells are certainly 
affected by long-continued periods of drought or rainfall, but how 
soon, to what extent, and in what manner are problems for which 
there is only theoretical solution. Consequently, as the concentra- 
tion of shallow-well waters in San Joaquin Valley might be changed 
by heavy rainfall the conditions of precipitation during the year in 
which the samples were taken may be noted. 



Tabl-e 6. — Inches of precipitation 


in San Joaquin 


Valley during 


1910 


1 




Station. 


County. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dee. 


Year. 


Lodi 


San Joaquin... 


2.35 


1.76 


2. 53 


0.15 


0.02 


Tr. 


0.00 


0.00 


0.40 


0.32 


0.21 


1.27 


9.07 


Farmington. 


do 


3.24 


2.26 


3.70 


.17 


.05 


0.00 


.00 


.00 


.50 


.38 


.38 


.94 


11.62 


Tracy 

Oakdale 


do 


1 90 


1 20 




.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 






. II! 


.05 


.42 




Stanislaus 


2.9.5 


.83 


3.28 


.34 


.06 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.29 


.16 


.39 


.67 


8.97 


Denair 


do 


1.56 


.55 


3.00 


.72 


.01 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.20 


.04 


.04 


.02 


6.14 


Newman 


do 


1.99 


.28 


2.60 


.18 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.52 


.12 


.19 


.51 


6.39 


Le Grand . . . 


Merced 


2.10 


.48 


1.88 


.83 


.00 


.00 


.20 


.00 


.30 


.83 


.73 


.28 


7.63 


LosBanos... 


do 


3.22 


.30 


2.03 


.00 




.00 


.00 


.00 


.25 


.28 


.26 


.47 


6.81 


Storey 


Madera... 


.67 


.50 


1.40 


.49 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.75 


.80 




.26 




Fresno 


Fresno 


1.22 


.21 


1.28 


.27 


Tr. 


Tr. 


Tr. 


.00 


1.00 


.45 


.24 


.21 


4.88 


Selma 


do 


2.00 


.14 


1.09 


.35 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


1.50 


.55 


.33 


.47 


6.43 






2.40 
2.37 


.00 
.22 


1.66 
1.96 






.00 
.00 


.00 
.04 


.00 
.00 


""".14 


.31 

.64 


".'36 


T63 




Portersville . 


Tulare 


.34 


.00 


7.10 


Angiola 


do 


.66 


.00 


1.45 




.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.88 


.57 


.30 


.60 




Wasco 


Kern 


1.79 


.00 


.68 


.16 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.85 


.25 


.19 


.70 


4.62 


Bakersfield . 


do 


1.15 


.22 


1.20 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.83 


1.37 


.54 


5.31 



Compiled from the Monthly Weather Review, U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau, 1910. 



METHODS OF I \ wn\ \ I i<>\. 41 

The total precipitation in the valley lor the year was considerably 
less than the average during the preceding LO years, the northern 
stations showing greater deficiency than the southern ones. Accord- 
ing to Table 6, In which the records o\' 16 selected stations are arranged 
in geographicaJ order from north to south, one-half to three-fourths 
of the rain fell during the first four months of the year. There was 
practically no rain at all between April and the middle of September, 
and all the streams throughout the valley were markedly low during 
that period. Unusually early and heavy rainfall took place Septem- 
ber 14, 15, and 16, but as the ground had been so long without rain 
the effect of the influx on the quality of the ground water was prob- 
ably inappreciable. Some slight showers occurred during October, 
but they were barely sufficient to dampen the surface of the ground 
and are negligible. More rain fell during November, but the field 
work had been carried by that time below Fresno into the semiarid 
region where the precipitation was proportionately light. The stream 
discharges were little affected by the November rains. The rainfall 
during December was far below normal, though the showers through- 
out Kern County were heavy enough to make the ground muddy. 
Field work was discontinued December 6, but a few samples, espe- 
cially from deep wells in Fresno County, were collected the middle of 
December. Evidently, therefore, the samples were collected during 
or after the dry season before the ground could be affected by winter 
rains, and in a year of exceptionally low precipitation; consequently 
the mineral content of the waters may be considered to be normal. 
The greatest deviations from what may be looked upon as normal were 
found in waters from shallow wells near stream beds or flooded irriga- 
tion ditches, but such conditions could easily be recognized, and they 
have been noted in the detailed descriptions. 

METHODS OF EXAMINATION. 

FIELD ASSAY. 

As the limited time and funds for the work prohibited complete 
analysis of all the samples and as such analyses of only a few waters 
could not be typical of waters over large areas, it was decided to 
test a great many waters as nearly correct in the field as such work 
can be done and to amplify and corroborate these data by a few 
laboratory analyses. The methods of assay described by Leighton 1 
were employed in the field work, determinations being made of total 
hardness, and the carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, and chloride 
radicles. Color also was estimated in a few waters. 

1 Leighton, M. O., Field assay of water: TJ. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 151, 1905. 



42 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

CARBONATE AND BICARBONATE. 

For the carbonate test 10 drops of a 1 per cent solution of phenol- 
phthalein was added to 100 cubic centimeters of the water in a glazed 
white porcelain mortar, and the solution was then titrated with 
tablets of sodium acid sulphate, each of which was equivalent to 
about 1 milligram of carbonate (C0 3 ) . Few waters contained normal 
carbonate; consequently a qualitative test with the indicator was 
sufficient to show their absence. Quarters of tablets, made by slic- 
ing with a knife, were used for more accurate estimation. Some 
tablets were then dissolved in a fresh portion of water to which 2 
drops of a one-tenth per cent solution of methyl orange had been 
added, and the mixture was titrated with the water to an alkaline 
reaction. The amount of bicarbonate was computed by the formula 

lOOOnA oTJ 

x= -w~- 2B 

in which W = amount of water in cubic centimeters, A = the value of 
1 tablet in milligrams of HC0 3 , n = the number of tablets, x = parts 
per million of HC0 3 , and B = parts per million of C0 3 as determined 
by the previous test. 

CHLORINE. 

A measured amount of the water, to which 5 drops of a 5 per cent 
solution of potassium chromate had been added, was titrated in the 
mortar with tablets containing silver nitrate, which were crushed and 
triturated by a pestle. The content of chlorine in parts per million 
can be calculated from the number and the standard of the tablets 
and the amount of water. Two strengths of tablets were used, one 
having an equivalent of about 1 milligram and the other about 10 
milligrams of chlorine. Chlorines less than 300 parts were estimated 
in 50 cubic centimeters of water with the weaker tablets cut in quar- 
ters. Titration of greater amounts was commenced with the 
stronger tablets, and waters containing more than 2,000 parts per 
million of chlorine were diluted with distilled water before titration. 

SULPHATE. 

For estimation of sulphate 100 cubic centimeters of the water 
was slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid (1 — 1), about 1 gram 
of moderately coarse crystals of barium chloride was added, and the 
cold mixture was vigorously shaken until the crystals were completely 
dissolved. This treatment precipitates barium sulphate in a finely 
divided state, and imparts to the liquid a turbidity the degree of 
which is proportional to the amount of sulphate and can be de- 
termined in the turbidimeter. This instrument consists essentially 



METHODS OF l.\ \M1N \TlOX. 43 

of a glass tube inclosed in an open-bottomed brass tube suspended 
by a large-headed tripod over a Btandard candle, whose flame is 
kept automatically 3 inches from the bottom of the glass lube 

The latter is graduated in millimeters from bottom to top in one 
scale and in cubic centimeters in another, SO that it serves both as 
a depth measure foe turbidity readings and as a graduate for general 
use. The liquid containing the precipitate of barium sulphate, after 
being thoroughly agitated, was poured into the graduated tube until 
the image of the flame disappeared. The depth in millimeters of the 
liquid in the tube was then read across the bottom of the meniscus, 
and the corresponding amount of the sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) was 
found by reference to the rating table of the turbidimeter. The 
readings were made in a darkened place and usually after dark. It 
was customary to average the results obtained on three or more 
precipitations. Direct readings were made for amounts between 
30 and 400 parts per million, and less than 30 parts were estimated 
as trace, 5, 10, or 20 parts by the turbid appearance of the mixture. 
Appropriate dilutions were made for amounts exceeding 400 parts. 

TOTAL HARDNESS. 

Total hardness is determined in the field tests by adding to a 
measured amount of the water tablets containing a known amount of 
sodium oleate until the liquid after vigorous shaking forms a foam 
that does not break hi five minutes while the bottle rests in a horizontal 
position. This substitution of tablets for the soap solution commonly 
employed in the laboratory is entirely satisfactory from the standpoint 
of accuracy, and it also obviates carrying a bulky bottle of soap, but 
so many tests had to be made and the time consumed in grinding 
the oleate tablets is so considerable that it was more economical to 
use a short burette and an alcoholic solution of Castile soap each 
cubic centimeter of which was equivalent to about 1 milligram of 
CaC0 3 . Fifty cubic centimeters of water was titrated, allowance 
being made in computing the hardness for the soap consumed by 
50 cubic centimeters of distilled water. So much dependence is 
placed on the estimate of total hardness in interpreting the results of 
the field assays that dilutions with distilled water were frequently 
made in order that interference by the insoluble soaps of the alkaline 
earths might be avoided. 

PROBABLE ACCURACY. 

Thirty-two waters that were analyzed by Mr. F. M. Eaton were 
also assayed in the field, and the results of analyses and assays are 
compared in Table 7. The bicarbonate and carbonate in both sets 
have been recomputed to C0 3 because changes in the condition of 



44 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



the carbonates during the time between assay and analysis make 
comparison difficult unless this is done. The computation does not 
affect the accuracy of the results in any way. 

Table 7. — Comparison of field and laboratory results of the examination of 32 waters 

from San Joaquin Valley. 

[Parts per million.] 



No. 


Carbonate radicle 
(C0 3 ). 


Sulphate radicle 
(SO4). 


Chlorine (CI). 


Total hardness as 
CaC0 3 . 


Field. 


Labora- 
tory. 


Field. 


Labora- 
tory. 


Field. 


Labora- 
tory. 


Field. 


Labora- 
tory.o 


1 


24 
34 
37 
36 
40 
60 
50 
67 
60 
50 
75 
63 
73 
44 
99 
64 
80 
87 
46 
147 
115 
185 
87 
75 
72 
82 
88 
77 
828 
101 
860 
38 


25 
35 
39 
40 
44 
66 
38 
73 
65 
57 
78 
65 
81 
44 
103 
65 
92 
83 
45 
159 
101 
198 
95 
70 
76 
96 
94 
68 
962 
108 
841 
42 


5 
Tr. 
Tr. 
10 
Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 

5 
Tr. 
Tr. 

5 

20 
Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 
55 
Tr. 
Tr. 
10 

5 
395 
52 
800 
764 
828 
471 
Tr. 
1,640 

5 

5 




2.9 



8.2 











7.0 

3.7 

4.1 

1.6 
66 

6..6 




45 







4.9 
541 
45 
713 
600 
711 
441 


718 






10 
5 

10 

15 

30 

10 

25 

15 

20 

35 

15 

25 

20 

50 

5 

55 

35 

55 

110 

20 

65 

280 

115 

470 

85 

165 

125 

445 

490 

210 

1,380 

4,110 


5.4 

6.0 

8.0 

14 

25 

5.9 

22 

15 

15 

35 

10 

22 

19 

48 

6.0 

51 

35 

58 

112 

22 

64 

279 

128 

433 

86 

153 

122 

481 

492 

196 

1,418 

4,310 


41 
51 
59 

40 

63 

84 

87 

151 

111 

51 

122 

3 

94 

96 

24 

68 

44 

250 

28 

11 

68 

28 

80 

505 

810 

953 

854 

162 

535 

1,220 

59 

1,838 


48 


2 


47 


3 . 


51 


4 


42 


5 


76 


6 


80 


7 


40 


8 


144 


9 


113 


10 


56 


11 


114 


12 


19 


13 


94 


14 


122 


15 


38 


16 


67 


17 


59 


18 


160 


19 

20 


28 
26 


21 


71 


22 


31 


23 


91 


24 


450 


25 

26 


754 
698 


27 


1,027 
120 
655 

1,240 
30 

2,773 


28 

29 

30 

31 

32 





a Computed from values for calcium and magnesium. 

In Eaton's tests 100 cubic centimeters of water was evaporated to 
dryness, and the residue was dried at 180° C. for estimation of dis- 
solved solids. Iron was estimated colorimetricalry and calcium and 
magnesium gravimetrically in that residue. Carbonate, bicarbonate, 
and chloride were determined by titration in ordinary manner, and 
sulphate by precipitating and weighing as barium sulphate the sul- 
phate in 100 cubic centimeters of the sample. The content of the 
alkalies, expressed as parts per million of sodium, was computed from 
these estimates by means- of the following formula. The symbols 
represent the amounts in parts per million of the radicles, and their 
respective coefficients are obtained by dividing their valences by 
their molecular weights. 

Na = 23 (0.0333CO 3 + 0.0164HCO 3 + 0.0208SO 4 + 0.0282C1 
-0.0499Ca-0.082lMg). 



METHODS OF EXAMINATION. 45 

The two sols of carbonate determinations in Table 7 show numerical 
differences ranging from to 1 ;>■-!; only one set., however, has a relative 
difference exceeding M per cent and the average difference of the 

other 31 sots is 7 per cent. This is not, unreasonable in view of the 
better light, and other facilities in tho laboratory, and it should he 
remembered also that all the figures are results of single determina- 
tions with unusually small quantities of water. The usual error in 
the determinations of low chlorines by Held assay is 5 parts or less 
because most of the estimates were performed with 50 cubic centi- 
meters of water. The average difference of tho 11 sets of figures ex- 
ceeding 100 parts per million is less than 6 per cent. Evidently field 
estimates of chlorine should be expressed not more exactly than to 
the nearest 5 parts per million and not more than three significant 
figures should be given. 

As total hardness was not determined in the laboratory, a com- 
parative figure has been calculated from the amounts of calcium and 
magnesium by means of the following formula, in which H, Ca, and 
Mg represent respectively total hardness as CaC0 3 , calcium, and mag- 
nesium in parts per million: 

H = 2.5 Ca + 4.1 Mg. 

Though this formula expresses the theoretical relation between 
the amounts of calcium and magnesium and the hardness found by 
titration with soap and conventionally expressed as CaC0 3 actual 
determinations do not agree exactly, because the soap titration is 
subject to obscure errors and because the form of computation mag- 
nifies errors in the estimates of the bases. Yet review of the columns 
showing total hardness indicates that the results obtained by titra- 
tion convey an approximate idea of the amount of the alkaline-earth 
bases, though the proportionate differences of single determinations 
are fairly high. Possibly more nearly accurate estimates could have 
been made by using a weaker soap solution and greater dilutions. 

The estimates of appreciable amounts of sulphate are too few to 
permit computation of a probable error, but it is apparent that the 
procedure gives estimates near enough to the correct values for use 
in approximate classification. The field estimate of sulphate in set 
No. 14 is obviously incorrect, and other computations indicate that 
the laboratory report, of sulphate in set No. 30 is one-half what it 
should be. 1 

* See also Dole, R. B., The field assay of water: Eng. News, vol. 64, p. 145, 1910; Rapid examination of 
water in geologic surveys of water resources: Econ. Geology, vol. 6, June, 1911. 



46 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. 

For the purpose of ascertaining how much dependence may be 
placed on field assays — that is, how interpretations of them compare 
with those of examinations more carefully made and also how far 
such interpretations agree with practical experience in using the 
waters in question — certain values have been computed from the 
data of the 32 analyses and assays of the same waters in Table 7, and 
notes have been made of the known uses of the waters. The values 
in the columns headed " Field," in Table 8, are calculated from the 
assays and in those headed " Laboratory," from Eaton's more com- 
plete analyses, except the figure for total solids in the laboratory 
results, which was obtained directly by weighing the residue dried 
at 180° C. The computations and classifications are made by means 
of formulas and ratings explained on pages 50-82. 



METHODS OF EXAMINATION. 



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48 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 









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METHODS OF i.\ \mi .\ \ I [ON. 49 

Nearly all the numerical differences in the computed amounts 
become insignificant when the values are interpreted according to the. 
ratings that are discussed on pages 50-82. For example, the differ- 
ence between the alkali coefficients of the first two waters is very 

great, but as any value exceeding IS indicates a water good for 
irrigation the discrepancy of the computed coefficients is negligible 

The coefficients agree more closely as the concentration of th( 4 , mineral 
matter increases so that the two sets of figures are nearly alike for 
the poorer waters. The distinction in set No. 16, which is the only 
pair in which a difference of interpretation occurs, is due only to 
strict application of the rating according to which the coefficient, 18, 
is the dividing line between "good" and "fair" waters. The notes 
under "Remarks" show that the classification coincides with expe- 
rience in applying the waters to crops. Five of those rated as good 
for irrigation and four of those rated as fair have been used for 
several years on various cultures without apparent trouble. No. 17, 
rated as fair, is to be used for irrigating alfalfa. No. 25, a calcium 
sulphate water high in mineral matter but rated as good for irriga- 
tion, has been used on a variety of small cultures for one year without 
apparent harm, while it is said that No. 30, which is in the same 
neighborhood but is distinctly more highly mineralized, can be used 
to irrigate nothing but alfalfa, probably an old growth. No. 22, 
classed as poor, is on an abandoned farm, but it is reported to have 
been unsuccessfully used for irrigating grain. None of the other 
supplies rated as poor or bad is applied to crops. Many of the differ- 
ences in the computed values of scale-forming and foaming con- 
stituents become insignificant in classification, yet five sets show 
distinction in class; the differences in sets Nos. 2, 12, and 21 are 
caused by strict application of the rating tables to estimates that 
are rather close to the lines of division, and they illustrate well the 
difficulty that is always experienced in attempting to translate the 
figures of an analysis into descriptive adjectives. For example, the 
small difference of 10 parts per million in the estimates of scale- 
forming ingredients in set No. 2 changes the classification. No 
importance can be attached to the difference between 3 and 30, the 
estimated amounts of foaming constituents in the first water, because 
both numbers are far below the point where the foaming tendency 
must be considered; similarly, the numerically large discrepancy 
in corresponding values for No. 23 has no practical significance as 
either estimate indicates that the water would foam badly. An 
incorrect determination of total hardness is responsible for the 
difference in the computed values of the foaming constituents in 
No. 27, and an unexplained but obvious difference in the estimates 
of sulphate accounts for a like difference in No. 30, but neither pre- 
98205°— wsp 398—16 4 



50 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

vents proper classification of the waters in respect to their value 
for boiler use. The computed amounts of total solids agree well 
with those determined by weighing, except in No. 14, where the 
difference in classification is traceable to the difference in sulphate 
already mentioned. 

Altogether this comparison demonstrates one of the many practical 
purposes for which rapid methods of water-testing are economical — 
for selecting waters that are extremely good or extremely bad, thus 
greatly reducing the number of samples that must be sent to the 
laboratory for detailed and much more expensive analysis. Field 
assays afford estimates of much practical value when they are inter- 
preted by the broad standards proper for water ratings, though they 
can never rival complete analyses in accuracy or in general availa- 
bility. The comparative inexpensiveness of the assay opens a large 
and legitimate field of activity, for by means of it agriculturists, geolo- 
gists, chemists, and others engaged in water investigations can obtain 
information regarding mineral constituents general in character but 
essentially practical. The rapidity with which the assays can be 
made makes it possible to perform the large number of examinations 
necessary in studying the quality of water over any extensive area. 

PROCEDURES OF THE SOUTHERN PACIFIC CO. 

A large proportion of the miscellaneous analyses were performed in 
the laboratory of the Southern Pacific Co. at Sacramento. By the 
procedures of that laboratory the residue from 1,000 cubic centimeters 
of the sample, after having been dried at 160° C. to a constant weight, 
is separated into a soluble and an insoluble portion by treatment 
with 150 cubic centimeters of hot distilled water. Silica, calcium, 
and magnesium are estimated in each portion, and the alkalies in the 
soluble portion are calculated by difference. Chloride, sulphate, 
nitrate, and carbonate are estimated in separate portions of water 
by common methods. The results of these tests, stated by the ana- 
lyst in the form of compounds, have been computed to ionic form 
in parts per million in order that they may be comparable with other 
tests. 

STANDARDS FOR CLASSIFICATION. 

MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF WATER. 

All natural waters contain dissolved or suspended materials with 
which they have come into contact. They take up such materials 
in amounts determined principally by the chemical composition and 
physical structure of the substances, by the temperature, pressure, 
and duration of their contact, and by the condition of substances 
that they have previously incorporated. For purposes of examination 



WATK1J FOB [EBIGATION, 51 

the substances that may be present in natural waters are classified 
as suspended matter, such as particles of day of- leaves; dissolved 
matter, cither of mineral or organic origin; microscopic animals or 

plants; and bacteria. The presence of very small animals and plants 
likely to affect the quality of water is determined by microscopic 
examination, and the chance of contracting disease by drinking the 
water is ascertained by bacteriologic processes. The amount and 
nature of the mineral ingredients are most commonly determined by 
estimating the total suspended matter, total dissolved matter, total 
hardness, total alkalinity, silica, iron, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, 
sodium, potassium, carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, nitrate, chloride, 
free carbonic acid, and free hydrogen sulphide, these being the ma- 
terials most commonly present and most likely to affect the value 
of the waters. 

WATER FOR IRRIGATION. 

SOURCE OF ALKALI. 

Many mineral substances are injurious to vegetation, but the only 
ones that are usually abundant enough to demand attention are com- 
pounds of sodium, or, as they are commonly termed, "the alkalies." 
Though potassium in nominal quantity is a plant food, it is usually 
not separated from sodium in commercial analyses of water, the two 
bases being estimated together and reported as sodium ; but as the 
proportion of potassium in highly mineralized waters is commonly 
low compared with that of sodium this disregard of potassium does 
not lead to any considerable error in judging the value for irrigation. 
During the natural decomposition or rotting of rocks and soils salts 
of the alkalies, easily soluble in water, are formed. These com- 
pounds are leached from the soil and washed away in regions where 
plenty of rain falls, and consequently they do not become concen- 
trated enough to damage crops ; but wherever the rainfall is insuffi- 
cient to effect this removal such materials continually increase, and 
the proportion of them may become so great that plants are stunted 
or killed and the ground becomes unproductive. 

Accumulations of alkali can also be caused in another way. All 
waters that penetrate the ground either naturally or as a result of 
irrigation contain these salts in solution, and evaporation of the 
water, leaving the salts, adds to the supply that has been formed by 
decomposition of rock. Such concentration of soluble salts has been 
taking place for a long time in the basin of Tulare Lake, the waters of 
which have been removed many times by evaporation, leaving a 
residue of salts to mix with those already in the ground. The effect 
of waters applied during irrigation is all that is properly within the 
scope of this section, but certain general features in connection with 



52 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

the occurrence of alkali should be considered, because the soluble 
salts normally formed in the soil and those introduced by the water 
are alike in their nature and their effect. 

OCCURRENCE OF ALKALI. 

The soluble salts are not evenly distributed over an area or through 
a given depth, but are ordinarily concentrated in patches near the 
surface. Such patches may be found in slight depressions into which 
mineralized water has seeped or drained and from which it has later 
evaporated. The underground water drawn to the surface by 
capillarity also brings alkali, which becomes concentrated in the upper 
layers of the soil. Where the salts are largely sulphates or chlorides 
the plots are covered with deposits of so-called " white alkali" — 
that is, crystals of alkaline chlorides and sulphates, mostly common 
salt and Glauber's salt ; but when much carbonate is present the plots 
are blackened by solution of humus and are termed spots of " black 
alkali." It can readily be understood from the manner in which the 
salts are formed and from the possibility of their introduction by 
seepage or irrigation that the alkali content of a soil can progressively 
increase until it reaches a strength that will destroy plants previously 
unaffected. Conversely, a soil that is normally too high in alkali 
can be rendered productive by washing part of the soluble salts out 
of it. 

If the alkali content of a soil is excessive the growth of cultures is 
retarded or entirely prevented. A still greater amount of salts kills 
the most resistant plants, and the area becomes devoid of vegetation. 
The chief cause of the poisonous action is commonly considered to be 
abstraction of water from the plant roots by change of the osmotic 
pressure, but bad effects are also probably more or less due to corro- 
sion of the plant roots, germicidal action on the soil bacteria, and 
interference with the food supply through solution of humus. 

PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF ALKALI. 

• 

The cause and the manner of the harmful action are, however, not 
so important at present as the amount of these toxic compounds that 
can be tolerated by crops, for the limit of resistance in soils fixes in turn 
the maximum content of waters that can safely be used for irrigation, 
and it indicates the precautions that must be taken in applying the 
water. Yet it becomes evident from brief consideration of the prob- 
lem that limits of tolerance must be very broadly interpreted and that 
absolute classification of waters in respect to their irrigation value is 
impracticable. 

Many investigators have studied the effect on plant growth of min- 
eral substances in water solutions, and the excellent work of Kearney 



WATER FOR IRRIGATION. 53 

and Cameron ' id typical of these. Experimenting with seedlings of 

white lupine and alfalfa in different strengths of pure solutions, they 
found that the readily soluble salts common in soils are toxic in the 
following order: Magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride, sodium 
carbonate, sodium sulphate, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, 

and calcium chloride, the first being 200 times as harmful as the last. 
But when similar tests were made in the presence of an excess of 
calcium sulphate and calcium carbonate both the order of toxicity and 
the maximum concentrations in which the seedlings would grow were 
entirely changed. The order and the limits for lupine under these 
conditions are sodium carbonate, 1,560 parts per million; sodium 
bicarbonate, 4,170 parts; magnesium chloride, 9,600; sodium chlo- 
ride, 11,600; calcium chloride about 16,000; sodium sulphate, 21,600; 
and magnesium sulphate, 22,400. Magnesium sulphate, which is most 
toxic in pure solution, is least harmful in the presence of large amounts 
of calcium carbonate and sulphate. The chlorides of magnesium, 
sodium, and calcium follow each other in relative toxicity. The sul- 
phate was found to be the least harmful of the sodium salts, sodium 
chloride being twice and the carbonate fourteen times as poisonous. 
These alterations are extremely significant, for none of the salts occurs 
in large amount in soils except in the presence of large quantities of cal- 
cium and more or less of all the other harmful salts. Therefore the 
death point in a simple solution of one salt is not a safe measure of 
tolerance, for the power of resistance under natural conditions 
depends on complex reactions between all the components of the soil 
solution. 

Other investigators have shown not only that different cultures 
have different degrees of resistance but also that the order of toxicity 
of the various salts is changed. Some species of rather weak tolerance 
have also been bred to withstand high concentrations, and it is a mat- 
ter of ordinary observation in regions of alkali that certain crops die 
on land where others flourish. The vertical position of the soluble 
salts also is important. Where, as under ordinary conditions, they 
are concentrated near the surface they can do the greatest amount of 
damage because they are in contact with the delicate roots. But they 
may be washed downward out of the danger zone by proper applica- 
tion of water. All these considerations make it evident that the 
nature of the crops, the manner of cultivation and irrigation, the 

1 Kearney, T. H., and Cameron, F. K., Some mutual relations between alkali soils and vegetation: U. S. 
Dept. Agr. Rept. 71, 1902. 

Cameron, F. K., and Breazeale, J. F., The toxic action of acids and salts on seedlings: Jour. Phys. Chem- 
istry, vol. 8, p. 1, 1904. 

Jensen, G. H., Toxic limits and stimulation effects of some salts and poisons on wheat: Bot. Gazette, 
vol. 43, p. 11, 1907. 

Kahlenberg, L., and True, R. H., The toxic action of dissolved salts and their electrolytic dissociation, 
Bot. Gazette, vol. 22, p. 81, 1896. 

Heald, F. D., The toxic effect of dilute solutions of acids and salts upon plants: Bot. Gazette, vol. 22, 
p, 125, 1896. 



54 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

other mineral components of the soil, and many other factors affect 
tolerance to alkali; when the effects of reactions between the mineral 
constituents of the soil and of the applied water are added to these 
modifying features it must be admitted that all general conclusions 
regarding the potential value of a water supply for irrigation are sub- 
ject to much modification in particular cases. 

Possibly the best basis for conclusions on the value of water for 
irrigation is the work of Loughridge, 1 who has endeavored to deter- 
mine the greatest amounts of alkali in the upper 4 feet of ground in 
the presence of which cultures grow and come to maturity. In pursu- 
ance of this plan observations were made of the condition of fruit 
trees, shrubs, cereals, and other cultivated plants growing or dying 
in soils, which were then partly analyzed. Loughridge's results are 
of great practical interest because they are linked with observations 
on cultures growing under natural conditions on a large scale, and they 
are here particularly valuable because they represent experiments 
mostly in the territory covered by this report. Interpretation of the 
figures is complicated, however, as Loughridge points out, by uncer- 
tainty as to whether the observed poor growth was always due to 
presence of alkali and not to other harmful conditions. As not one 
alone but all the salts are present in natural soils and as they owe 
their toxic action to the extent to which they are dissociated, the 
impossiblity of determining the exact amounts of the different salts 
in solution or the share of each acid and each basic radicle in the toxic 
action is fully apparent. Notwithstanding these doubtful points 
much can be learned from the studies regarding the relative tolerance 
of cultures. 

The amount of alkali that could be tolerated was found to depend 
largely on the distribution of the salts in the vertical soil column, the 
injury usually being greatest in the upper foot, where the feeding roots 
and the greatest amount of alkali occurred together. The range of 
tolerance for different cultures is very great. Lemon trees, considered 
very sensitive, were unaffected in the presence of 5,760 pounds of 
alkali per acre 4-feet, while grapevines withstood nearly eight times 
as much, or 45,760 pounds. Sorghum flourished in soil containing 
81,360 pounds per acre 4-feet, but rye withstood only 12,480 pounds 
of alkali. The fact that some plants are more readily affected when 
they are young is well illustrated by alf alf a, which tolerates more than 
eight times as much alkali when old as when young. Experiments in 
vineyards showed that different varieties are affected to different 
degree by alkali and as a corollary that alkali changes the composition 
of grapes. 

1 Loughridge, R. H., Tolerance of alkali by various cultures: California Univ. Agr. Exper. Sta. Bull. 
133, 1901. Quoted by Hilgard, E. W., Soils, p. 467, Macmillan Co., New York, 1906. See also California 
Univ. Agr. Exper. Sta. Bulls. 128, 140, and 169. 



w \li;i; FOB [RRIQATION. , r ). r ) 

RELATIVE IIARMFULNESS OF THE COMMON ALKALIES. 

Though various cultures are affected in different degree by sodium 
in the three common forms of carbonate, chloride, and sulphate, I bere 
is some general agreement. Sodium as the carbonate is commonly 

the most harmful, as the chloride somewhat less so, and as the sul- 
phate least harmful. Hilgard ' gives the maxima for cereals grown 
on a certain sandy loam as about 0.1 per cent of sodium carbonate, 
0.25 per cent of sodium chloride, and 0.48 per cent of sodium sulphate 4 , 
corresponding to a toxicity ratio expressed in terms of sodium of 
1:1.6:3.6. The relative harmfulness of sodium in the sulphate, 
chloride, and carbonate, respectively, can be expressed according to 
Loughridge's results for ten standard crops of San Joaquin Valley by 
the ratio 1:5:6.6; that is, sodium as the carbonate is 6.6 times as 
harmful, and sodium as the chloride 5 times as harmful as sodium 
as the sulphate. A similar ratio for the 15 most sensitive crops is 
1: 5.3: 6.4. If, therefore, sodium as the sulphate is given a toxicity 
of 1 a reasonably approximate estimate of the relative toxicity of 
sodium as the sulphate, chloride, and carbonate, respectively, would 
be expressed by the ratio 1:5:6. Stabler has used in his formulas, 
quoted later, the ratio 1: 5: 10 in order to allow for the undesirable 
puddling of the soil by the carbonate. 

RELATION BETWEEN APPLIED WATER AND SOILS. 

When water used in irrigating evaporates from the surface of the 
soil it leaves in the ground its content of salts. If all the applied 
water were to escape by evaporation, constant use of any supply, no 
matter how pure it might be, would eventually result in an accumu- 
lation of alkali that would render the soil unproductive. If, on the 
other hand, all of a water not too high in mineral content were to 
seep downward into the deep-lying strata it would leach out the 
soluble salts of a highly charged area, which would thus be made 
productive. Such extreme conditions, however, are not natural. 
Though evaporation greatly exceeds rainfall in arid regions, and the 
accumulation of alkali is thus facilitated, part of the water seeping 
away carries with it a load of salts in solution. Various amounts of 
mineral matter are also taken up by crops and are removed during 
harvesting; then, too, the sodium in the soil and in the applied water 
can be prevented by proper methods of irrigation and drainage from 
accumulating where it will damage the delicate feeding roots of cul- 
tures. Consequently, waters of a relatively low mineral content may 
be applied year after year without inflicting damage, but those 
exceeding a certain limit of mineral content are useless for irrigation; 
waters of an intermediate class, normally capable of increasing the 

i Hilgard, E. W., Soils, p. 464, Macmillan Co., New York, 1906. 



56 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

alkalies in the soil, may be harmless under judicious usage. This 
outline of the general relations between the saline content of soils 
and of waters used on them indicates other allowances that should 
be made in estimating to what extent the mineral matter in applied 
waters affects their value for irrigation. 

NUMERICAL STANDARDS. 

Twelve hundred parts per million of mineral matter is the limit of 
concentration given by Hilgard * for irrigation water in all cases under 
the ordinary practice in California. This limit is greatly modified by 
the character of the dissolved salts, and the results of extensive irri- 
gation elsewhere indicate that very much stronger waters can be 
used on some soils if they are properly applied. Basing his compu- 
tations on Loughridge's determinations of tolerance, 2 Stabler 3 has 
developed formulas for rating waters in respect to their value for 
irrigation. His comparison is made by means of an " alkali coeffi- 
cient" (k), which is defined as the depth in inches of water which 
would yield on evaporation sufficient alkali to render a 4-foot depth 
of soil injurious to the most sensitive crops. The sodium equiva- 
lents of the three common salts of sodium, the sulphate, chloride, 
and carbonate, are assigned relative toxicities of 1, 5, and 10, respec- 
tively, and the maximum tolerance of sensitive cultures is taken as 
1,500 pounds of sodium in the form of sulphate per acre 4-feet. The 
correctness of the latter assumption by itself might be questioned in 
view of the fact that Loughridge's figures for cultures at the lower 
end of his lists are particularly liable to upward revision after further 
investigation. Yet this should not lead to appreciable error as the 
chief value of the formulas rests in the ratio of toxicities and the 
interpretation of the computed value of Jc. 

If Na — 0.65 CI is zero or negative, Jc = p, • 

If Na- 0.65 CI is positive but not greater than 0.48 S0 4 , Jc = N ^ !ni ' 

KNa-0.65Cl-0.48SO 4 ispositive,^ Na _ 033 g_ 043So; 

The alkali coefficient, Jc, is in inches as already explained ; the sym- 
bols S0 4 , CI, and Na represent, respectively, the amounts in parts 
per million in the water of sulphate, chlorine, and alkalies, the 
latter being commonly grouped under the name of sodium. Con- 
sideration of bicarbonate is precluded because estimates of it 
apparently were not made in the work on which the formulas are 
based. The three formulas represent the different relations between 

i Op. cit., p. 248. 

2 Loughridge, It. H., Tolerance of alkali by various cultures: California Univ. Exper. Sta. Bull. 133, 
1901. 

3 Stabler, Herman, Some stream waters of the western United States, with chapters on sediment carried 
by the Rio Grande and the industrial application of water analyses: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 
Paper 274, p. 177, 1911. See also Eng. News, vol. 64, p. 57, 1910. 



w \ rEB FOB [BRIG \ now f)7 

the alkali and the acid radicles, ruder the first condition, with 

enough, or more than enough, chlorine to satisfy sodium, it is assumed 
that chlorides other than that of sodium are as harmful as that 
compound. Cameron ' found that magnesium chloride, sodium 

chloride, and calcium chloride had relative toxicities of 1.2: L.0:0.6, 
respectively, in the presence of an excess of calcium sulphate 4 or of 
calcium sulphate and calcium carbonate 4 . Under the second condi- 
tion, where the chloride and sulphate radicles together are sufficient 
\o satisfy sodium, and under the third, where both chlorine and 
sulphate are insufficient to satisfy sodium, magnesium is assumed 
to have no deleterious effect. This base loses the greater part of its 
toxic power when much calcium is present and therefore this assump- 
tion seems justifiable as not only is calcium usually high in all soils 
but also it commonly exceeds the proportion of magnesium in natural 
waters. Though the formulas are based on the relative predominance 
of the radicles, they should not he interpreted as signifying that the 
acids and bases are combined but as presenting the maximum possi- 
bilities of the deposition of harmful alkali salts in the soil layer. 
Waters to which the first two formulas are applicable are likely to 
leave white alkali on evaporation, and those in the third class probably 
yield black alkali. 

The approximate amount of alkali in a water can be computed 
from the results of a field assay by the following formula : 

Na = 0.83 CO3 + O.41 HCO3 + O.71 CI + 0.52 SO 4 -0.5 H. 

The symbols represent the amounts in parts per million of alkali 
(sodium and potassium) and the carbonate, bicarbonate, chlorine, 
sulphate, and total hardness found by assay. The equation expresses 
the theoretical relation that the sum of the reacting values of the acid 
radicles minus the reacting values of calcium and magnesium, which 
together are one-fiftieth of total hardness, equals the reacting value 
of the alkalies; the factor 25 instead of 23, the atomic weight of 
sodium, is used for safety. Because of the approximate nature of 
the figures of field assays values of Tc computed from them should be 
reported with not more than two significant figures and to the nearest 
10 when they exceed 30. 

The following ratings for interpreting values of the alkali coeffi- 
cient are proposed by Stabler : 

Table 9. — Classification of water for irrigation. 



Value of fc. 


Classification. 


Greater than 18 


Good. 
Fair. 
Poor. 
Bad. 


6 to 18 


1.2 to 5.9 







1 Cameron, F. K., and Breazeale, J. F., The toxic action of acids and salts on seedlings: Jour. Phys. 
Chemistry, vol. 8, p. 1, 1904. 



58 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

The value of k, showing the number of inches of water that would 
yield on evaporation sufficient alkali to inhibit the growth of very 
sensitive plants, indicates the relative degree of care that is essential 
in applying a water to irrigated tracts. As defined by Stabler, 
"good" waters are those that can be used for many years without 
special care to prevent alkali accumulation. Waters classed as "fair" 
require special care to prevent gradual concentration of alkali except 
in loose soils with free natural drainage. In using waters classed as 
"poor" care in selection of soils has been imperative and artificial 
drainage has frequently been necessary. The "bad" waters contain 
so much harmful matter in solution that they are practically valueless 
for irrigation. These ratings are based on general practice in the 
arid and semiarid regions of the United States, and so far as they can 
be checked by comparison with actual experience in the use of waters 
in San Joaquin Valley they answer all practical purposes. 

This rating, like any other that might be devised, should be liber- 
ally interpreted. It is well to repeat emphatically that it signifies 
only a comparison of the waters themselves on the basis of their 
mineral content. It has no reference whatever to the possibility of 
raising good crops on land to which the waters may be applied, 
because it does not take into account the alkali content and the tex- 
ture of the soil, drainage conditions, the method of irrigation, the 
duty of the water, or the other factors on which agricultural success 
depends. 

REMEDIES FOR ALKALI TROUBLES. 
WASHING DOWN THE ALKALI. 

The relation between applied water and soils makes it apparent 
that the farmer can control the alkali content of his ground to great 
extent by the manner in which he applies water and the care he takes 
to prevent accumulation of soluble salts near the surface. When a 
deep, readily pervious soil is covered with water to a proper depth 
by flooding, which is widely practiced in San Joaquin Valley, the 
water rapidly soaks into the soil, dissolving the alkali salts concen- 
trated near the surface and carrying them downward beyond the 
zone of influence on the delicate feeding rootlets. But if the ground 
is not then protected against surface evaporation the water is drawn 
upward and alkali again impregnates the top layers. This action 
can be prevented in some measure by thorough cultivation as soon 
as possible after irrigation, and the shade afforded by trees and good 
stands of grass or grain also minimizes it. This shading effect partly 
explains why well-established growths of some cultures can thrive in 
soil containing an amount of alkali injurious to younger crops. A 
good stand of alfalfa, for instance, inhibits surface evaporation and 
consequent rise of alkali to the feeding roots, though the ground 



REM EDIES FOB ai.kai I TROUBLES. 



59 



deeper down may contain enough alkali to kill the plants; whereas 
newly started alfalfa can not prevent evaporation, and the alkali, 
dissolved by the water and rising with it by capillarity, becomes 
concent rated where it can do the greatest damage. A shallow soil 

underlain by hardpan is not benefited by flooding alone, as the 
leaching is stopped by the impervious layer. 

It is a prevalent idea that alkali can be washed from a piece of 
land by flooding it with large quantities of water and then allowing 
the surplus to run off. The improvement is, however, not due so 
much to removal of the comparatively small quantities of matorial 
carried away in the off-flow as to depression of the alkali by the 
downward percolation just described. The results of some experi- 
ments by Ileadden l illustrate this well. Two waters, the compo- 
sition of which is given in columns A and B of Table 10, were used 
during two successive days to flood a tract of alkali land about 600 
feet long. Four samples of the off-flow were taken, two at. the 
beginning of the off-flow and two just before the on-flow was stopped, 
and the average of the analyses of these four samples is given in 
column 0. Though one of them, taken at the very commencement 
of the off-flow, carried 1,238 parts per million of dissolved solids, 
this high content lasted only a few minutes, and comparison of the 
average with the results in columns A and B shows how little the total 
mineral content of the water that remained above ground and finally 
flowed off after crossing the entire area was increased by solution 
of the alkali in the soil. 

Table 10. — Effect of flooding on alkali as shown by composition of water. 
[Parts per million.] 



Constituents. 



Total solids 

Organic and volatile matter 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (Fe 2 03+Al 2 03). 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Manganese (Mn) 

Sodium (Na) 

Potassium ( K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Cnlorine (CI) 



A 


B 


C 


D 


328 


706 


760 


1,415 


27 


37 


44 


92 


10 


14 


12 


23 


1.0 


3.4 


.8 


1.6 


43 


90 


93 


139 


10 


24 


30 


66 


.6 


.8 


.2 


.7 


42 


96 


102 


195 


3.6 


3.8 


5.6 


1.9 


64 


106 


112 


120 


113 


305 


335 


713 


10 


24 


24 


60 



3,278 

145 

20 

.7 

314 

170 

1.0 
436 

6.4 
149 
1,885 
147 



A. Water used in irrigating on Sept. 1. 

B. Water used in irrigating on Sept. 2. 

C. Average composition of off-flow Sept. 2. 

D. Average composition of water from 4 shallow wells Aug. 31. 

E. Average composition of water from 4 shallow wells Sept. 2. 



Four shallow wells in the plot, protected against entrance of water 
over the top, were sampled before (column D) and after irrigation 



1 Headden, W. P., Colorado irrigation waters and their changes: Colorado Agr. Coll. Exper. Sta. Bull. 
82, 1903. 



60 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

(column E). The composition of the ground water portrayed by 
these averages is typical in showing the downward passage of the 
alkali salts in the soil. The average amount of mineral matter in 
the off-flow is only slightly greater than that in the applied water 
that was used in greater quantity, but the water in the wells increased 
in dissolved solids from 1,415 parts to 3,278 parts per million, cal- 
cium, magnesium, sodium, sulphate, and chloride having been more 
than doubled. Headden estimates that the ground water gained 
about 5,000 pounds of mineral matter per acre-foot of water by this 
irrigation. 

The effect of natural precipitation in washing down the soluble 
salts can be illustrated by analyses of water from the same wells 
after a long period of heavy rainfall. Just before the rain stopped 
the water of one well contained 10,360 parts per million of total 
solids, an amount several times the normal; only eight days later 
solids had fallen to 6,450 parts; and to 2,030 parts after a month. 
This decided increase of mineral content after rainfall and the sub- 
sequent decrease coincident with the loss of water by evaporation 
and drainage can be explained by change in position of the soluble 
salts in the soil column. 

Irrigation by shallow furrows from which the water soaks into the 
ground is practiced extensively in orchards and truck gardens 
throughout San Joaquin Valley. This causes downward transmis- 
sion of alkali in pervious soils like flooding, with the added advantage 
that the decreased evaporation lessens the tendency toward surface 
concentration of alkali. Deep, narrow furrows would undoubtedly 
still further reduce the proportion of water lost by evaporation and 
would prevent the rise of alkali by affording deeper circulation of the 
water supply. 

DRAINAGE. 

Such downward washing of soluble substances affords no perma- 
nent relief, for the alkali, not being removed, may be drawn again 
to the surface, or may rise as a result of wasteful irrigation, a trouble 
common in water-logged soils. Downward washing can be safely 
relied on only when the soils are pervious and have good natural 
drainage. Application of heavily mineralized water even under 
such conditions year after year may increase the amount of the harm- 
ful ingredients and render them more difficult to handle. The recog- 
nized permanent remedy is installation of underdrains, through 
which the dissolved substances may be removed. The installation 
of drainage is costly, but it has become an essential part of irrigation 
systems wherever the soils are very bad or the waters are high in 
harmful ingredients, for it not only facilitates the removal of the 
deleterious salts originally in the ground, but also affords means for 
preventing accumulation of alkali when very strong waters are used. 



WATKK FOB BOILEB rsi . (,1 

The experimental plots cultivated by the Department of Agri- 
culture in Fresno County where 4 the "rise of the alkali" has spoiled 
otherwise good ground have been thoroughly reclaimed by under- 
drainage. 1 Many of the waters of the valley now considered poor 
for irrigation can probably be utilized on well-drained tracts, tor 
sodium chloride waters far more concentrated than some of the 
poorer ones in the trough of San Joaquin Valley are being success- 
fully applied to Algerian lands 2 that are thoroughly drained. The 
best results with strong saline waters have been obtained by irriga- 
ting copiously at frequent intervals. In conjunction with free 
drainage such operation prevents concentration of alkali salts in the 
soil, for any accumulation that may form is quickly dissolved and 
washed downward. 

MISCELLANEOUS REMEDIES. 

Though it is possible to remove a large proportion of the alkali 
crust by scraping the surface of the land that method is too expen- 
sive to be generally adopted. Growing and completely cropping 
plants that secrete relatively large quantities of alkali is tedious but 
fairly successful. The injurious effect of carbonate alkali can be 
greatly reduced by spreading the ground with gypsum, by action of 
which carbonate of lime and alkali sulphates are formed. As car- 
bonate alkalies are much more harmful than chlorides or sulphates 
treatment of this character lessens the toxic action. 

WATER FOR BOILER USE. 

FORMATION OF SCALE. 

The most common trouble in boilers is formation of scale, or 
deposition of mineral matter within the boiler shell. When water 
is heated under pressure and concentrated by evaporation, as in a 
boiler, certain substances are thrown out of solution and solidify on 
the flues and crown sheets or within the tubes. These deposits 
increase fuel consumption because they are poor conductors of heat 
and increase the cost of boiler repairs and attendance because they 
have to be removed. If the amount of scale is great or if it is allowed 
to accumulate the boiler capacity is decreased and disastrous explo- 
sions are likely to occur. 

The incrustation (scale) consists of the substances that are insoluble 
in the feed water or become so within the boiler under conditions of 
ordinary operation. It includes practically all the suspended matter, 
or mud; the silica, probably precipitated as the oxide (Si0 2 ); the 
iron and aluminum, appearing in the scale as oxides or hydrated 

1 Fortier, Samuel, and Cone, V. M., Drainage of irrigated lands in the San Joaquin Valley, California: 
U. S. Dept. Agr. Exper. Sta. Bull. 217, 1909. 

2 Means, T. H., The use of alkaline waters for irrigation: U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Soils Circ. 10, 1903; also 
U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 93, p. 255, 1904, 



62 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

oxides; the calcium, precipitated principally as carbonate and sul- 
phate ; and the magnesium, found chiefly as oxide but also partly as 
carbonate. Scale is therefore a mixture, which varies in amount, 
density, hardness, and composition with the quality of water supply, 
the steam pressure, the type of boiler, and other conditions of use. 
Calcium and magnesium are the principal basic substances in the 
scale, over 90 per cent of which usually is calcium, magnesium, car- 
bonate, and sulphate. If much organic matter is present part of it 
is precipitated with the mineral scale, as the organic matter is decom- 
posed by heat or by reaction with other substances. If magnesium 
and sulphate are comparatively low or if suspended matter is com- 
paratively high the scale is soft and bulky and may be in the form of 
sludge that can be blown or washed from the boiler. On the other 
hand, a clear water relatively high in magnesium and sulphate may 
produce a hard, compact scale that is nearly as dense as porcelain, 
clings to the tubes, and offers great resistance to the transmission of 
heat. Therefore the value of a water for boiler use depends not only 
on the quantity but also on the physical structure of the scale pro- 
duced by it. 

CORROSION. 

Corrosion or "pitting" is caused chiefly by the solvent action of 
acids on the iron of the boiler. Free acids capable of dissolving iron 
occur in some natural waters, especially in the drainage from coal 
mines, which usually contains free sulphuric acid, and also in some 
factory wastes draining into streams. Many ground waters contain 
free hydrogen sulphide, a gas that readily attacks boilers, and some 
contain dissolved oxygen and free carbon dioxide, which are also 
corrosive. Organic matter is probably a source of acids, for waters 
high in organic matter and low in calcium and magnesium are cor- 
rosive, though the nature and action of the organic bodies are not 
well understood. The chief corrosives are acids freed in the boiler by 
the deposition of hydrates of iron, aluminum, and magnesium, the 
last-named being the most important as it is the most abundant. 
The acid radicles that were in equilibrium with these bases may pass 
into equilibrium with other bases, displacing equivalent quantities 
of carbonate and bicarbonate; or they may decompose carbonates 
that have been precipitated as scale; or they may combine with the 
iron of the boiler, thus causing corrosion; or they may do all three, 
their action depending on the chemical composition of the water. 
Even with the most complete analyses this action can be predicted 
only as a probability. If the acid thus freed exceeds the amount 
required to decompose the carbonate and bicarbonate radicles it 
attacks the iron of the boiler and produces pits or tuberculations of 
the interior surface, leaks, particularly around rivets, and general 
deterioration. 



watkk von uoii.ki; USB. (i:i 

FOAMING. 

Foaming is rising of the water in the boiler and particularly in the 
steam space normally above the water, and it is intimately oonneoted 
with pruning, which is the passage from the boiler of water mixed 
with steam. Foaming results when anything prevents the free escape 
of steam from the water. It is usually ascribed to an excess of dis- 
solved matter that increases the surface tension of the liquid and 
thereby reduces the readiness with which the steam bubbles break. 
As sodium and potassium remain dissolved in the boiler water while 
the greater portion of the other bases is precipitated, the foaming 
tendency is commonly measured by the degree of concentration of 
the alkali salts in solution, because this figure in connection with 
the type of boiler determines to great extent the length of time that a 
boiler may run without danger of foaming. It is a fact that the 
worst foaming waters in railroad practice are encountered in the arid 
and semiarid regions of the Southwest where the quantity of dis- 
solved alkali is greatest. However, it is well known that suspended 
matter can cause foaming, for certain waters that deposit a moderate 
amount of scale but do not foam when clear foam badly when they 
carry a great quantity of mud. Greth 1 states that foaming is due to 
condition of boiler, design of boiler, size and shape of water space, 
steam pipe, irregularity in blowing off, introduction of oil into the 
feed water from the exhaust steam, neglect to change water period- 
ically, irregularity of load, or improper firing and feeding. He con- 
cludes that it is not merely the presence of sodium salts in solution 
that causes foaming, but the presence of other substances which 
together with the sodium salts and operating conditions bring about 
foaming. The writer believes that a strong solution of sodium car- 
bonate might not induce excessive foaming in water otherwise pure, 
but its introduction into a boiler, which under operating conditions 
invariably contains suspended matter or precipitated sludge, might 
produce foaming by increasing the suspended matter either by pre- 
cipitating calcium and magnesium or by loosening previously depos- 
ited scale. Under working conditions it is difficult to distinguish the 
actual cause of the trouble. Experience has shown that the type of 
boiler, steam pressure, and other operating conditions may greatly 
accelerate or retard foaming. 

REMEDIES FOR BOILER TROUBLES. 

The best way of remedying unsatisfactory boiler supplies is to 
treat them before they enter boilers, but where this is impracticable 
trouble can be minimized in various ways. Low-pressure large-flue 

1 Greth, J. C. W., Water softening and purification for coal-mine operations (paper read before the West 
Virginia Coal Mining Institute, Bluefield, W. Va., June 7, 1910). 



64 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

boilers are used in many stationary plants with hard waters, and it 
is said that the scale formed in them is softer and more flooculent and 
can therefore be more readily removed than that formed in high- 
pressure boilers. Blowing off is about the only practical means of 
preventing foaming, because this trouble is due principally to con- 
centration of substances in the residual water of the boilers. Accu- 
mulated sludge, or soft scale, is removed by blowing, particularly in 
locomotive practice. In condensing systems much of the trouble due 
to mineral matter in the feed water is obviated because the quantity 
of raw water supplied is proportionately small. Yet the problem is 
not completely solved in such systems, because the incrusting or 
corrosive action is transferred from the boiler to the condenser, which 
requires more or less cleaning and repairing in proportion to the 
undesirable qualities of the water supply. 

BOILER COMPOUNDS. 

Boiler compounds are widely used in regions where hard waters 
abound, but treatment within the boiler should be given only when it 
is impossible to purify the supply beforehand or when the supply is 
relatively pure and requires only minor correction. If previous puri- 
fication is not practicable some feed waters can be improved by judi- 
cious addition of chemicals. Many substances, ranging from flour, 
oatmeal, and sliced potatoes to barium and chromium salts, have 
been recommended for such use, but only a few have proved to be 
really efficient. These substances have been classified 1 according to 
their action within the boiler. Those that attack chemically the 
scaling and corroding constituents precipitate incrusting matter and 
neutralize acids. Soda ash, the commercial form of sodium carbonate, 
containing about 95 per cent Na 2 C0 3 , is the most valuable substance 
of this character, because it is cheap and its use is attended with the 
least objectionable results. Tannin and tannin compounds are also 
used for the same purpose. The addition of limewater to the feed 
to prevent corrosion and to obviate foaming has been recommended, 2 
and it is probable that it would improve waters high in organic 
matter and very low in incrustants. Such practice increases the 
incrustants in proportion to lime added but prevents corrosion. 
Soda ash neutralizes free acids, precipitates the incrusting ingredients 
as a softer, more flocculent material, which is more easily removed 
from the boiler, and increases the foaming tendency of the water by 
increasing its content of dissolved matter. The proper amount to 
be used depends on the chemical composition of the water and the 
style of the boiler. 

1 Caxj, A. A., The use of boiler compounds: Am. Machinist, vol. 22, pt. 2, p. 1153, 1899. 
2 Palmer, Chase, Quality of the underground waters in the Blue Grass region of Kentucky: U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 233, p. 187, 1909. 



watki; FOB BOILBB i sk. (',;, 

The second class of boiler compounds comprises those that ac1 
mechanically on the precipitated crystals of scale-making matter 
soon after they are formed, surrounding them and robbing them of 
their cement-like action. Glutinous, starchy, and oily substances 

belong to this class, but they are not now u>0(\ to any considerable 

extent because they thicken and foul the water more than they pre- 
vent the formation of hard scale. 

The third class comprises compounds that act mechanically like 
those of the second class and also partly dissolve deposited scale, 
thus loosening it and aiding in its ready removal. Of these, kerosene 
is very effective, but graphite is believed to be still better. 

Many boiler compounds possessing or supposed to possess one or 
more of the functions just described are on the market and are widely 
sold. Some are effective and some are positively injurious. Most 
of them depend for their chief action on soda ash, petroleum, or a 
vegetable extract, but all are costly compared with lime and soda ash. 
Boiler compounds can not reduce the amount of scale and may 
increase it. Their only legitimate functions are to prevent -corrosion 
and deposition of hard scale and to remove accumulations of scale 
that have become attached to the boiler. Every engineer should bear 
in mind that steam boilers are costly and that fuel and boiler repairs 
are costly and should hesitate to add substances to his feed water 
without competent advice as to their effect. It is far more economical 
to have the water supply analyzed and to treat it effectively by well- 
known chemicals in proper proportion, either within or without the 
boiler, than to experiment with compounds of unknown composition. 

NUMERICAL STANDARDS. 

Stabler's excellent mathematical discussion of the quality of waters 
with reference to industrial uses ! contains several formulas by which 
the effect of w r aters may be computed. They have been recalculated 
in order to obtain the estimates in parts per million. The terms in- 
volving iron, aluminum, and free acids have been omitted because 
these substances are too scarce to call for consideration in such 
approximate rating; and the terms involving sodium and potassium 
have been united for simplicity. 

(1) s = Sm + Cm + 2.95 Ca+1.66Mg 

(2) h = Si0 2 + 1.66 Mg+ 1.92 CI +1.42 S0 4 -2.95 Na 

(3) f = 2.7Na 

(4) c = 0.0821 Mg- 0.0333 C0 3 - 0.0164 HC0 3 . 

These equations express numerically some of the relations that have 
been discussed in the preceding sections on scale, corrosion, and 

1 Stabler, Herman, Some stream waters of the western United States, with chapters on sediment carried 
t>y the Rio Grande and the industrial application of water analyses: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 
Paper 274, p. 165, 1911. See also Eng. News, vol. 60, p. 355, 1908. 

98205°— wsp 398—16 5 



66 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

foaming. Sm, Cm, Si0 2 , Ca, Mg, Na, CI, S0 4 , C0 3 , and HC0 3 repre- 
sent the amounts in parts per million, respectively, of suspended 
matter, colloidal matter (oxides of silicon, iron, and aluminum), silica, 
calcium, magnesium, alkalies, chlorine, sulphate, carbonate, and 
bicarbonate. 

Formula 1 gives the amount of scale (s) that would probably be 
formed from the water under ordinary conditions of boiler operation; 
as the ground waters of San Joaquin Valley are practically clear, Sm 
is equal to zero. Cm has been given a value of 50 for waters not 
exceeding 400 parts of total solids and 30 for other waters, and 
these values may be considered large enough for safety. 

Formula 2 gives the amount of hard scale forming ingredients (h) . 

The ratio - expresses the relative hardness of the scale. If - is 

s s 

greater than 0.5 the scale may properly be called hard; if it is less 
than 0.25 the scale may properly be called soft. 

Scale (s) has been estimated from the data of the field assays by 
adding to total hardness (H) the values of Cm used in formula 1 (s = 
Cm + H) . As H theoretically equals 2.5 Ca + 4.1 Mg, and the last two 
terms of equation 1 are 2.95 Ca+ 1.66 Mg, the unknown but variable 
ratio between calcium and magnesium introduces an uncertain error. 
Estimates of the scale-forming constituents are, however, always 
approximate, and experience indicates that this computed value is 
accurate enough for relative ratings. 

Formula 3 gives the amount of the foaming ingredients (f), as esti- 
mated from the probable content of alkali salts. The value of sodium 
(Na) computed by the formula on page 57 has been used in computing 
the amount of the foaming ingredients from the results of the field 
assays. 

Formula 4 has been used to calculate the corrosive tendency of 
the water (c). As can be readily seen from the coefficients, it 
expresses the relation between the reacting values of magnesium and 
the radicles involving carbonic acid (p. 62). If c is positive, the water 
is corrosive. If c + 0.0499 Ca, the reacting value of calcium, is nega- 
tive, the mineral constituents will not cause corrosion, but whether 
organic matter or electrolysis will cause it is uncertain. If c + 0.0499 
Ca is positive corrosion is uncertain. These conditions of reaction 
may be restated to conform to the data of the field assays thus: 
If 0.033 C0 3 + 0.016 HCO3 equals or exceeds 0.02 H the mineral 
constituents will not cause corrosion. If 0.004 H exceeds 0.033 C0 3 + 
0.016 HCO3 the water is corrosive. One-fiftieth of the total hard- 
ness (0.02 H) is equivalent to the reacting value of calcium and mag- 
nesium, and H divided by 230 (0.004 H) is equivalent to the reacting 
value of magnesium on the assumption that Ca = 6 Mg, a ratio in 
which magnesium is given its smallest probable value in relation to 



WATI.K FOB BOILEB USE. 



67 



calcium. The reacting values of carbonate and bicarbonate arc 
represented, respectively, by 0.033 CO, and 0.016 HCO„ the coeffi- 
cients of which are obtained by dividing the valence of each radicle 
by its molecular weight. 

After these three attributes of boiler feed have been computed 
rating the water is largely a matter of judgment based on experi- 
ence. The commit tee on water service of the American Railway 
Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association has offered two 
classifications by which waters in their raw state may be approxi- 
mately rated, but, as the report states, "it is difficult to define by 
analysis sharply the line between good and bad water for steam- 
making purposes." Table 11 gives these classifications with the 
amounts transformed to parts per million. 

Table 11. — Ratings of waters for boiler use according to proportions of incrusting and 
corroding constituents and according to foaming constituents. 



Incrusting and corroding con- 
stituents. 


Foaming constituents. 


Parts per million. 


Classifica- 
tion .« 


Parts per million. 


Classifica- 
tion, b 


More 
than— 


Not more 
than— 


More 

than— 


Not more 
than — 




90 
200 
430 


Good. 
Fair. 
Poor. 
Bad. 




150 
250 
400 


Good. 
Pair. 
Bad. 
Very bad. 


90 

200 
430 


150 

250 
400 










a Am. Ry. Eng. and Maintenance of Way Assoc. Proc, vol. 5, p. 595, 1904. 
b Idem, vol. 9, p. 134, 1908. 

The classification by incrusting and corroding constituents has 
been applied to the computations of scale-forming ingredients (s) in 
the analytical tables accompanying this report. The quantity of 
foaming ingredients (f) should always be considered in conjunction 
with the probable amount of scale or sludge that would be formed, 
the hardness of the scale, and the tendency toward corrosion. These 
ratings result in a classification rather more rigid than that usually 
reported by chemists of railroads in California, and for that reason 
those who are thoroughly familiar with local conditions and with 
the chemistry of water will doubtless prefer to disregard the descrip- 
tive terms of the classification and to draw their own conclusions 
regarding the quality of the waters from the figures representing 
scaling, foaming, and corrosion. The classifications are given prin- 
cipally for the aid of those not thoroughly familiar with such matters, 
and rather to indicate the limits of usefulness than to define rigidly 
the value of the waters. 

No matter how low a water may be in undersirable constituents 
it is poor economy to use it if it is much poorer in quality than the 
average water of the region in which it occurs. On the other hand, 



68 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

if the best available supply is poor the economy of purifying it even 
at large expense is obvious. Along the Atlantic Coast, where waters 
containing less than 100 parts per million of incrusting ingredients are 
extremely common, a supply carrying 200 parts of such substances 
would not be considered fair for boiler use. Throughout most of 
Mississippi Valley, however, such a supply would be considered good, 
because in that region natural waters not exceeding 100 parts in scale- 
forming constituents are rare. This variance in local standards is 
well illustrated by the opinions on the two sides of San Joaquin Valley 
as to what constitutes a good boiler water, and because of it numerical 
standards should be interpreted relatively not literally. At the same 
time any classification by nominal ratings must be applied absolutely 
if the terms are to have comparative significance outside the region 
where the waters exist. Waters of poor quality can be improved by 
treatment in softening plants. How bad a water may be used with- 
out treatment depends on the cost of softening the water and the 
relative saving effected by the use of the softened water. A report 1 
of the committee on water service of the American Railway Engineer- 
ing and Maintenance of Way Association sets forth the factors 
involved. The benefits include the saving in boiler cleaning, repairs, 
and fuel, the decrease in the time during which the boilers must be 
withdrawn from service for cleaning and repairs, the decreased depre- 
ciation of the boilers, and the value of the materials removed by soften- 
ing. The cost of softening includes the cost of labor and power for 
the softening apparatus, the cost of softening chemicals, the interest 
on the cost of installation, depreciation in the value of the softening 
plant, and the waste in changing boiler feed due to increased foaming 
tendency. 

In locomotive service, it is in general economical to treat waters 
containing 250 to 850 parts per million of incrustants and to treat 
those containing less than 250 parts if the scale formed contains much 
sulphate. 2 As the incrusting solids may commonly be reduced to 
80 or 90 parts per million, the economy of treating boiler waters 
deserves consideration in a region where many supplies contain 300 
to 500 parts per million of incrusting matter. 

The amount of mineral matter that makes a water unfit for boiler 
use depends on the combined effect in boilers of the softening reagents 
used with such waters and of the constituents not removed by soften- 
ing. Sodium salts added to remove incrustants or to prevent corro- 
sion increase the foaming tendency, and this increase may be great 
enough to render a water useless for steaming. It is not of much 
benefit to soften a water containing more than 850 parts per million 
of nonincrusting material and much incrusting sulphate. 2 Trouble 

1 Am. Ry. Eng. and Maintenance of Way Assoc. Proc, vol. 8, p. 601, 1907. 

2 Idem, vol. 6, p. 610, 1905. 



w\ii:i; FOB MISCELLANEOUS ENDUSTRIAL USES. li'.l 

from priming in locomotive boilers begins at a concentration <>f about 

1,700 parts per million of foaming const ituents, and the limit of safety 
for stationary boilers is reached at a concent radon of about, 7,000 
parts. Though waters containing as high as 1,700 parts per million 
of foaming constituents have been used, it, is usually more economical 
to incur considerable expense in replacing such supplies by bet t cl- 
ones. 

WATER FOR MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIAL USES. 
GENERAL REQUISITES. 

Many articles arc affected by the ingredients of the water used in 
their manufacture and can be improved by its purification. If by 
the same process the boiler efficiency of the factory can be increased 
the expense is often justified when it would not be warranted merely 
by the increased value of the product. This observation applies 
particularly to paper, pulp, and strawboard mills, laundries, and 
other establishments where large quantities of water are evaporated 
to furnish steam for drying, and to ice factories and similar plants 
where distilled water is required. 

Besides its use for steam making water plays a specific part in 
many manufacturing processes. In paper mills, strawboard mills, 
bleacheries, dye works, canning factories, pickle factories, cream- 
eries, slaughterhouses, packing houses, nitroglycerin factories, distil- 
leries, breweries, woolen mills, starch works, sugar works, canneries, 
glue factories, soap factories, and chemical works water becomes a 
part of the product or is essential in its manufacture. In most of 
these establishments the principal function of the water is that of a 
cleansing agent or a vehicle for other substances, and therefore a 
supply free from color, odor, suspended matter, microscopic organ- 
isms, and especially from bacteria of fecal origin, and fairly low in 
dissolved substances, especially iron, is with few exceptions satisfac- 
tory. But water hygienically acceptable is necessary where it comes 
into contact with or forms part of food materials, as in the making 
of beverages, sugar, and dairy or meat products. As ideal waters 
for any use are rare, the manufacturer must ascertain what degree 
of freedom from impurities is necessary to prevent injury to his 
machinery or to his output and whether the cost of obtaining such 
purity is counterbalanced by decreased cost of production and 
increased value of product. 

EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED AND SUSPENDED MATERIALS. 

The effects in some industries of the substances most commonly 
found in water are outlined in the following pages, the object being 
to offer approximate standards for classification. 



70 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

FREE ACIDS. 

Free mineral acids, such as the sulphuric acid in drainage from 
coal mines or the hydrochloric acid in the effluents of some indus- 
trial establishments, are especially injurious and nearly always have 
to be neutralized before the waters containing them can be used 
industrially. In paper mills, cotton mills, bleacheries, and dye 
works waters containing a measurable amount of free mineral acid 
decompose chemicals, streak and rot fabrics, and corrode and rapidly 
destroy metal screens, strainers, and pipes. 

SUSPENDED MATTER. 

Suspended matter in surface waters may be of vegetable, mineral, 
or animal origin, as it consists of particles of sewage, bits of leaves, 
sticks and sawdust, and sand and clay. The fine silt so common in 
rivers of the West is largely derived from clay. Few well waters 
contain suspended animal or vegetable matter, but many carry finely 
divided sand and clay, and many become turbid by precipitation of 
dissolved ingredients. Suspended matter is objectionable in all 
processes in which water is used for washing or comes into contact 
with food materials, because it is likely to stain or spot the product. 
Suspended matter due to precipitated iron is especially injurious even 
in small amount. Suspended vegetable or animal matter liable to 
decomposition or to partial solution is much more objectionable, even 
in small amount (10 to 20 parts per million), than equal quantities of 
mineral matter. For these reasons water should be freed from sus- 
pended matter before being used for laundering, bleaching, wool 
scouring, paper making, dyeing, starch and sugar making, brewing, 
distilling, and similar processes. In making the coarser grades of 
paper, such as strawboard, a small amount of suspended matter is 
not especially injurious, but for the finer white and colored varieties 
clear water is essential. 

COLOR. 

Color in water is due principally to solution of vegetable matter. 
Materials bleached, washed, or dyed light shades in colored water are 
likely to become tinged. Highly colored waters can be used in mak- 
ing wrapping or dark- tinted papers but not in making the white 
grades, and paper manufacturers are put to great expense for water 
purification on that account. The lower waters are in color, there- 
fore, the more desirable they are for use in bleacheries, dye works, 
paper mills, and other factories where brown tints in the products 
are undesirable. 

IRON. 

Iron is the most undesirable dissolved constituent, and its presence 
in comparatively small quantities necessitates purification. Many 
ground waters contain 1 to 20 parts per million of iron, which may 



watki; FOB MISCELLANEOUS tNDUSTBIAl I 71 

be precipitated by exposure bo the air and by release of hydrostatic 
pressure, causing the waters to become turbid, and many such waters 
develop rusty-looking gelatinous growths that may interfere in in- 
dustrial operations. In all cleansing processes, especially if soap or 

alkali is used, precipitated iron is likely to cause rusty or dull spots. 
In contact with materials containing tannin compounds iron forms 
greenish or black substances that discolor the product. Therefore 
many waters containing amounts even as small as 1 or 2 parts per 
million of iron have to be purified before they can be used industrially. 
In water for dye works iron is especially objectionable and commonly 
prevents the use of the water without purification. 1 Iron in the 
water supply of paper mills may be precipitated on the pulp, giving 
a brown color, or during sizing or tinting, giving spotty effects. 
Water containing much iron can not be used in bleaching fabrics 
because salts that spot the goods are formed. The dark-colored com- 
pounds that iron forms with tannin discolor hides in tanning and 
barley in malting, and give beer a bad color, odor, and taste. 2 

CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM. 

Calcium and magnesium are similar in their industrial effects. In 
water their amounts bear a more or less definite relation to each other, 
most waters carrying 10 to 50 per cent as much magnesium as calcium. 
Both are precipitated on whatever is boiled in water containing them, 
forming a deposit that may interfere with later operations. They 
also decompose equivalent amounts of many chemicals employed in 
technical operations, causing waste and forming alkaline-earth com- 
pounds that interfere with the later treatment of fabrics. These are 
the strongest incentives to preliminary softening. Some of the chem- 
icals used to disintegrate the fibers in making pulp are consumed by 
the calcium and magnesium in the water supply, though the loss from 
this source is not nearly so great as that which occurs later when the 
resin soap used in sizing the paper is decomposed by the calcium and 
magnesium. The insoluble soaps thus created do not fix themselves 
on the fibers, but form clots and streaks. Similar decomposition of 
valuable cleansing materials and subsequent deposition of insoluble 
compounds take place in laundering, wool scouring, and similar proc- 
esses. In the manufacture of soap, calcium and magnesium form 
with the fatty acids curdy precipitates that are insoluble in water and 
therefore have no cleansing value. They interfere with many dyeing 
operations, neutralizing chemicals and changing the reactions of the 
baths, besides forming insoluble compounds with many dyes. Highly 
calcareous waters can not be used for boiling the grain in distilleries 
because they hinder proper action by causing the deposition of 

1 Sadtler, S. P., A handbook of industrial organic chemistry, p. 483, Philadelphia, 1900. 

2 De la Coux, M. A. J., L'eau dans l'industrie, pp. 187, 232, Paris, 1900. 



72 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

alkaline-earth salts on the particles of grain, nor for diluting spirits 
because they cause turbidity. 1 Very soft water, on the other hand, 
is said to be undesirable in paper mills for loading papers with any 
form of calcium sulphate because such waters dissolve part of the 
loading materials. 2 Probably waters high in chlorides would also be 
bad for this purpose, because chlorides increase the solubility of 
calcium sulphate. 

CARBONATE. 

The effects of carbonate and bicarbonate in waters used in industrial 
processes are commonly not differentiated. It is not unusual to 
estimate the combined carbonic acid and to state it as the carbonate 
without distinguishing between carbonate and bicarbonate, though 
in many natural waters the carbonate radicle is absent and the com- 
bined carbonic acid is in the form of bicarbonate. If hard waters 
proportionately high in carbonate and low in sulphate are boiled. the 
bicarbonate radicle is decomposed, free carbonic acid is given off, 
and the greater part of the calcium and magnesium is precipitated. 
Consequently waters of that character are generally more desirable 
for industrial operations than waters high in sulphate and low in car- 
bonate, whose hardening constituents are not greatly reduced by 
boiling. In beer making waters high in carbonate are said to produce 
dark-colored beers with a pronounced malt flavor because the car- 
bonate increases the solubility of the nitrogenous bodies, whereas 
waters high in sulphate yield pale beers with a definite hop flavor 
because the sulphate reduces the solubility of the malt and the color- 
ing matters. 3 

SULPHATE. 

The influence of sulphate in beer making has been noted. Hard 
waters with sulphate predominating are desirable in tanning heavy 
hides, because they swell the skins, exposing more surface for the 
action of the tan liquors. 4 Sulphate interferes with crystallization 
in sugar making by increasing the amount of sugar retained in the 
mother liquor. 

CHLORINE. 

High chlorine is usually accompanied by high alkalies. Appreci- 
able amounts of chlorine are injurious in many industrial processes. 
Beverages and food products, of course, can not be treated with 
waters very high in chlorine without becoming salty. In tanning, 
chlorides cause the hides to become thin and flabby. 4 Animal char- 



1 De la Coux, M. A. J., L'eau dans l'industrie, p. 251, Paris, 1900. 

2 Cross, C. F., and Bevan, E. J., A textbook of paper making, p. 294, New York, 1900. 

:{ Brewing water, its defects and remedies, p. 19, American Burtonizing Co., New York, 1909. Also 
De la Coux, M. A. J., op. cit., p. 169. 

4 Parker, H. N., and others, The Potomac River basin: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 192, 
p. 194, 1907. 



watki; FOB DOMESTIC USE. 73 

coal used in clarifying sugar is robbed of its bleaching power by 
absorption of salt. Tho quality of sugars is affected by chloride- 
bearing waters, because saline salts are incorporated in tho crystals. 1 
In the preparation of alcoholic beverages chlorides in large amount 
prevent the growth of the yeast and interfere with the germination of 
the grain. Tho only commercially developed way of removing chlo- 
rine from water is distillation. As the cost of this process has been 
greatly reduced by use of multiple-effect evaporators, it is worth con- 
sideration where chloride-bearing waters must be used. 

ORGANIC MATTER. 

Organic matter of fecal origin is, of course, dangerous in any water 
that comes into contact with food products, and water so polluted 
should bo purified before being used. Care in this respect is par- 
ticularly necessary in creameries, slaughterhouses, canneries, pickle 
factories, distilleries, breweries, and sugar factories. Organic matter 
not necessarily capable of producing disease is further undesirable in 
industrial supplies because it induces decomposition in other organic 
materials, like cloth, yarn, sugar, starch, meat, or paper, rotting and 
discoloring them, and because it causes slime spots on fabrics by sup- 
porting algae growths. 

HYDROGEN SULPHIDE. 

Hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S), a gas with an odor like that of rotten 
eggs, occurs dissolved in some ground waters. It is corrosive even 
in small quantities, and it also injures materials by discoloring and 
rotting them. 

MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 

Silica and aluminum are usually not present in sufficient quantity 
appreciably to affect any industrial process, except those in which 
water is evaporated. 'Large quantities of sodium and potassium, by 
adding to the amount of dissolved matter, are objectionable in some 
manufacturing operations. Phosphates, nitrates, and some other 
substances not noted in this outline interfere with industrial chemical 
reactions, but they are present in few natural waters in sufficient 
quantity to have noticeable effect. 

WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE. 

PHYSICAL QUALITIES. 

Entirely acceptable domestic supplies are free from suspended 
matter, color, odor, and taste and are fairly cool when they reach the 
consumer. The more nearly waters fulfill these conditions the more 
satisfactory they are for general use. Suspended mineral matter 
clogs pipes, valves, and faucets, and growths of microscopic plants 

i De la Coux, M. A. J., op. cit., p. 152. 



74 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

suspended in water frequently cause odors and stains. The outlets 
of some artesian wells in San Joaquin Valley are surrounded by 
growths of microscopic organisms, which form tufts or layers in pipes 
and well casings and sometimes clog them. Detached particles 
escape through faucets, giving the water an unsightly appearance 
and staining clothes washed in it. So far as known, such growths in 
tanks and mains do not cause disease, but they often impart un- 
pleasant odors that make the water objectionable. True color is 
usually due to dissolved vegetable matter and causes serious objec- 
tion only when it exceeds 20 to 30 parts per million. 

In general, the well waters of this area are satisfactory in respect 
to suspended mineral matter and color. Finely divided material 
from quicksands enters some driven wells, but such trouble is not 
so serious as it is in other parts of the country. A few waters, espe- 
cially those containing iron, develop a turbidity of 10 to 30 parts 
per million on exposure to the air by precipitating dissolved matter, 
and such condition gives rise to apparent though not to real color. 
The only ground waters possessing much real color were found near 
the north end of Tulare Lake, where buried peat beds of old swamps 
probably contribute the organic matter that causes the color. 

The odor most commonly noticed in the ground waters of the 
valley is that of hydrogen sulphide, especially in the area where 
artesian wells yield notable quantities of natural gas. According to 
analyses quoted by Watts 1 the gas from wells at Stockton comprises 
about 25 per cent nitrogen, 12 per cent hydrogen, and 60 per cent 
hydrocarbon illuminants estimated as marsh gas (CH 4 ), and proba- 
bly this composition represents the general character of the gas 
throughout the valley, though the proportions of the substances may 
differ locally. The content of hydrogen sulphide is doubtless very 
small, but minute quantities of it are sufficient to cause appreciable 
odor. This smell, nauseating to some people, can usually be re- 
moved by spraying or splashing the water. 

BACTERIOLOGICAL QUALITIES. 

Before a water is used for domestic purposes there should be 
reasonable certainty that it is free from disease-bearing organisms 
and that it can be guarded against all chances of infection. The dis- 
ease germs most commonly carried by water are those of typhoid 
fever. The bacilli enter the supply from some spot infected by the dis- 
charges of a person sick with this disease, and, though comparatively 
short lived in water, they persist in fecal deposits and retain their 
power of infection for remarkable lengths of time. Consequently, 
water from lakes and streams draining from population centers or 

1 Watts, W. L., The gas and petroleum yielding formations of the central valley of California: California 
State Mining Bur. Bull. 3, p. 75, 1894. 



WATEB FOB DOMESTIC I BE. 75 

from irrigated fields should not be used for drinking without purifica- 
tion. Wells should be so Located as bo be guarded againsl the en- 
trance of filth of any kind, either over the top or by infill ration. 
Pumps and piping in the system should also be protected. Water 
from a carefully cased well more than 20 or 30 feel deep is acceptable 
if the weU is Located at a reasonable distance from privies, cesspools, 
and other sources of pollution. Many open dug wells and pits con- 
structed as reservoirs around the tops of casings are exposed to fecal 
contamination from above or through cracks in poorly built side 
walls. Care should be taken that the casings of deep wells do not be- 
come leaky near the surface of the ground so as to allow pollution to 
enter. As a matter of ordinary precaution the ground should be kept 
clean and water should not be allowed to become foul or stagnant 
near any well, no matter how deep. If shallow dug wells are neces- 
sary they should be constructed with water-tight walls extending as 
far as practicable into the well and also a short distance above ground. 
The floor or curbing should be water-tight, and pumps should be used 
in preference to buckets for raising the water. Every possible pre- 
caution should be taken to prevent feet scrapings and similar dirt 
from getting into the well. Ground water is not only less likely to 
become contaminated when protected from surface washings, air, 
and light, but it keeps better and is less likely to develop microscopic 
plants that give it an unpleasant taste. 

CHEMICAL QUALITIES. 

The amounts of dissolved substances permissible in a domestic 
supply depend much on their nature. No more than traces of 
barium, copper, zinc, or lead should be present, because these sub- 
stances are poisonous; however, their occurrence in measurable 
amounts in ordinary waters is so rare that tests for them are not 
usually made. Any constituent present in sufficient amount to be 
clearly perceptible to the taste is objectionable. Water containing 2 
parts per million of iron is unpalatable to many people and may 
cause trouble by discoloring washbowls and tubs and by producing 
rusty stains on clothes. Tea and coffee can not be made satisfactorily 
with water containing much iron because a black inky compound is 
formed. Four or five parts of hydrogen sulphide makes a water 
unpleasant to the taste, and this gas is objectionable also because it 
corrodes well strainers and other metal fittings. The amounts of 
silica and aluminum ordinarily present in well waters have no special 
significance in relation to domestic supply. 

Approximately 250 parts of chlorine makes a water " salty," and 
less than that amount causes corrosion. Where the chlorine con- 
tent runs as low as 5 or 10 parts in normal waters unaffected by 
animal pollution the amount of chlorine is frequently taken as a 



70) GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

measure of contamination. But the establishment of isochlors, or 
lines of equal chlorine, in San Joaquin Valley would be of little 
sanitary value, because many of the ground waters dissolve so much 
chlorine from the silt that the small changes caused by animal pollu- 
tion are completely masked. 

Calcium and magnesium are the chief causes of what is known as 
the hardness of water. This undesirable quality is indicated by in- 
creased soap consumption and by deposition on kettles of scale com- 
posed almost entirely of calcium, magnesium, carbonate, and sul- 
phate. Calcium and magnesium, forming with soap insoluble curdy 
compounds that have no cleansing value, prevent the formation of a 
lather until these two basic radicles have been precipitated. Hard- 
ness is commonly measured by the soap-consuming capacity of a water 
expressed as an equivalent of calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ), and it can 
be determined by actual testing with a standard solution of soap or 
can be computed from the amounts of calcium (Ca) and magnesium 
(Mg) by means of the following formula: 

Total hardness as CaC0 3 = 2.5 Ca + 4.1 Mg. 

If, as Whipple states, 1 1 pound of ordinary soap would soften only 
about 24 gallons of water having a total hardness of 200 parts per 
million, it can readily be seen that the hardness of water is of intimate 
concern, especially in the west side, where waters as hard as 300 to 
1,000 parts are common. Soda ash (sodium carbonate) is used to 
11 break" or soften hard water in order to save soap. Some large 
cities in other States have found it advisable to soften their public 
supplies instead of leaving that task to the individual consumer. 

MINERAL MATTER AND POTABILITY. 

The lower waters are in mineral content the more acceptable they 
are as sources of supply, yet the amount of dissolved substances that 
can be tolerated in drinking water is much greater than that allowable 
in city supplies, for which hardness, corrosion, pipe clogging, and 
general utility have to be considered. Though there are certain 
limits above which the common ingredients are intolerable, these 
limits are not only difficult to ascertain but are also likely to shift. 
A normal water is not a pure solution of one salt, whose physiologic 
effect can be measured, but an indeterminate mixture of solutions of 
several salts whose effects are not easily differentiated. Further, 
though all animals select for drinking waters that are lowest in solids 
and avoid those that are highest, the same animals, when trans- 
ported to districts of poor water, accustom themselves to supplies of 
far greater mineral content than those which before they would not 

i Whipple, G. C, The value of pure water, p. 26, New York, 1907. 



watki; FOB DOMESTIC [JSE. 



77 



touch. Consequently any general limits that may t>e assigned to the 
various mineral ingredients must be regarded as extremely flexible. 

The. truth of this statement may be more fully appreciated by 
consideration of the data in Table 12, in which the analyses are 
grouped according to the chemical character of the waters and are 
arranged in each group in descending order of strength. 

Table 12. — Mineral matter in certain waters. 

[Parts per million.) 



No. 


Carbonate 
radicle 

(C0 3 ). 


Sulphate 

radicle 

(soo. 


Chlorine 

(CD. 


Total 
hardness 
as CaC0 3 . 


Total 
solids. 


Calcium 
and mag- 
nesium 
(Ca+Mg). 


Sodium 

and 

potassium 

(Na+K). 


Character 
of watet 


1.... 


43 


Tr. 


1.310 


2,800 


7,489 


966 


1,550 


Na-CI. 


2a... 


360 


1,560 


1,300 




5,000 






Do. 


3.... 


75 


5 


1,740 


01 


3,600 


.SOO" 


""830" 


Do. 


■}.... 


46 


328 


1,520 


506 


3,600 


170 


1,030 


Do. 


5.... 


54 


390 


1,060 


490 


2,800 


160 


750 


Do. 


6.... 


200 


5 


279 


31 


872 


11 


320 


Do. 


7°. 


110 


2,300 


800 




4,900 






Na-SO<. 


8.'.'.. 


100 


1,810 


160 


i,'i3o~ 


3,200 


380 ' 


'"*580' 


Do. 


9.... 


362 


1,640 


460 


1,760 


4,100 


150 


600 


Do. 


10.... 


97 


800 


150 


560 


1,700 


190 


320 


Do 


11.... 


73 


430 


75 


83 


940 


25 


300 


Do. 


12"... 


410 


620 


500 




2,470 






Na-C0 3 . 


13.... 


963 


Tr. 


492 


"""660" 


2,452 


m 


"756" 


Do. 


14.... 


208 


Tr. 


135 


47 


750 


15 


240 


Do. 


15.... 


100 


Tr. 


64 


71 


350 


24 


86 


Do. 


16.... 


75 


1,680 


145 


1,280 


2,900 


400 


400 


Ca-S0 4 . 


17.... 


72 


1,380 


150 


1,320 


2,500 


440 


220 


Do. 


18.... 


60 


1.380 


135 


1,100 


2,400 


370 


305 


Do. 


19.... 


74 


895 


85 


720 


1,700 


228 


208 


Do. 


20.... 


38 


9 


4 


50 


169 


16 


16 


Ca-C0 3 . 



a From a manuscript report by Herman Stabler on the underground waters of Carson Sink, 1904. The 
other analyses were made for this report. 

The first group in Table 12 represents sodium chloride waters; that 
is, waters in which alkalies and chlorides predominate. Analysis No. 
1, of water from a gas well in Stockton, represents a solution of the 
chlorides of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium with little 
else. The water contains 4,310 parts per million of chlorine, and it 
is so salty that it is nauseating. The water represented by the next 
analysis has been used by the owner's family several years for all 
domestic purposes, but visitors object to it and consider it disagree- 
able to drink. No. 3 is the analysis of water from a deep well near 
Stockton that was formerly used as a source of domestic supply but 
has been abandoned. Nos. 4 and 5 are analyses of water from 
artesian wells near San Joaquin River, and though both supplies taste 
disagreeably salty to persons not accustomed to them, they are regu- 
larly used for drinking, cooking, and washing. Two gallons of the 
former water contains about as much common salt as a pound of 
uncooked ham. No. 6, the test of the supply of a very deep ar- 
tesian well on the west side not far from Lemoore, indicates a water 
much lower in chloride but higher in carbonate or " black alkali." 
As the farm on which the well is situated was not occupied informa- 



78 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

tion regarding the value of the water as a constant beverage could 
not be obtained. It contains much gas and would be distasteful on 
that account; otherwise, however, it differs from that represented by 
No. 14 only in being somewhat higher in chloride and alkalies. 

More strongly mineralized alkaline sulphate waters are drunk. 
The first one (see analysis No. 7), from a well in Carson Sink, was 
used when necessary, but the domestic supply was commonly hauled 
from another source several miles away. The water represented by 
analysis No. 8, which has been used for all domestic purposes for 
several years on a ranch west of Mendota, carries 1,800 parts of 
sulphate and exceeds 3,000 in total solids. It has a distinct taste 
and drinking a quart of it would be equivalent to taking somewhat 
less than a minimum dose of Glauber's salt. The water correspond- 
ing to No. 9 was used in the cook wagon and for watering the stock 
about one year on a ranch near Tulare Lake, but it was considered 
"alkali" water, and the domestic supply is now obtained from a 
deeper and much better well. Chloride and carbonate, as well as 
sulphate, however, are notably high in this water. The waters cor- 
responding to 10 and 11 are used for all domestic purposes, though 
they have a distinct taste. The former is one of a battery of wells 
that have been the exclusive supply of a family for three years, and 
the latter is the municipal supply of Mendota. 

The examples in the next group prove that less alkaline carbon- 
ates can be tolerated. The first analysis (No. 12) shows a water also 
high in chloride but not excessive in sulphate. This water has a 
color of 130, and it obviously carries much "black alkali." A party 
of men accustomed to alkali was so badly afflicted with diarrhea 
after drinking this water that work had to be stopped until another 
supply could be obtained. No. 13 shows nearly double the amount 
of carbonate but no sulphate. This water supplies a trough for 
stock, but it was evidently repugnant to the cattle, and current 
report in the neighborhood is to the effect that water from wells 
of the same depth "kills hogs/ 7 a phrase that seems to express the 
acme of undesirability. The mixture of alkaline carbonates and 
chlorides with the former predominating, indicated by test No. 14, 
has been used many years, but it is much lower in carbonate than 
the preceding two. The water listed under No. 15, the city supply 
of Stockton for many years, is drunk both by the inhabitants of the 
city and by visitors without harmful effect. 

Though the next four are designated calcium sulphate waters the 
alkalies also are high, and, furthermore, application of the term calcium 
necessarily implies the presence of magnesium in amounts ranging 
from 10 to 40 per cent of the total calcium and magnesium given 
in the seventh column of the table. The water corresponding to 
No. 16 can not be used for cooking, and herders object to it so strongly 



watki; FOB DOMESTIC USE. 79 

that the drinking supply is hauled 8 miles from the well represented 

by No. 17, which oarriea 300 parte less of sulphate and about half as 

much sodium and potassium. Analysis No. 18, which is similar to 
Xo. 17, is of a water that has been used more than 10 years for oooking 
and drinking by one man. These three waters tasted unpleasantly 
st rong to the writer and seemed to increase thirst instead of quenching 

it. Though the water represented by analysis No. 19 is lower in sul- 
phate than the preceding ones of this group, it is strongly mineralized. 
It is the hotel supply at Huron, where it is used for all purposes. 

Calcium carbonate waters arc extremely common, but it is unusual 
for them to be so highly mineralized as those of other classes. The 
representative of this type, indicated by test No. 20, is low in total 
solids and is entirely acceptable for drinking and cooking. 

The immediate consequence of drinking waters too high in mineral 
content is usually diarrhea. Many persons at first afflicted with 
this trouble become accustomed to the new supply and acquire what 
may be termed immunity. Whether other disorders result from 
the continued drinking of such waters is not known; and it is equally 
uncertain whether cattle and horses that so commonly are reported 
to have been killed by drinking strong mineral water were killed by 
the purging produced by the mineral matter in the water or by 
excessive consumption of water itself. It would appear from the 
data in Table 12 and the comments on it that alkaline carbonates 
are most injurious and alkaline sulphates least injurious and that 
alkaline chlorides occupy an intermediate position. This arrange- 
ment corresponds to the order of the same substances in reference 
to their toxic effect on plants. The most striking feature is that 
the amounts of mineral matter in most of these waters is much 
greater than that ordinarily considered permissible in drinking 
water. Waters exceeding 300 parts per million of carbonate, 1,500 
parts of chloride, or 2,000 parts of sulphate are apparently intolera- 
ble to most people. These limits fortunately are far beyond the 
points where the substances in solution are clearly perceptible to 
the ordinary taste. In conclusion it can not be too emphatically 
stated that the information on this subject is fragmentary and un- 
certain and that any limits of mineral tolerance are modified by 
individual idiosyncrasy. 1 

INTERPRETATION OF FIELD ASSAYS IN RELATION TO POTABILITY. 
CHEMICAL CHARACTER. 

The total amount of mineral matter and the nature of the chief 
constituents in a water comprise the essential information for judg- 
ing its potability in respect to mineral ingredients. Though nitrates, 

1 For further data see Dole, R. B.. Concentration of mineral water in relation to therapeutic activity: 
U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1911, pt. 2, pp. 1175-1192, 1912. 



80 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

phosphates, sulphides, and other substances occur in some waters 
they may usually be disregarded in interpretation or their insignifi- 
cance verified by a few laboratory analyses. Silica is usually present 
in colloidal form and it is relatively constant in quantity. 

Calcium and magnesium are similar in many effects and they 
vary in amount together, calcium usually being the greater. Sodium 
and potassium are so similar in effect that they are seldom separated in 
industrial analyses but are reported together as sodium. Carbonate 
and bicarbonate, representing more or less conventionally different 
conditions of carbonate in equilibrium, may be considered together 
under the common term of carbonate (C0 3 ), to which bicarbonate is 
translated by- dividing by 2.03. These groupings, rendered possible 
by the usual mode of occurrence of these substances and by their 
effects, greatly simplify classification of waters that have been assayed. 
Direct estimates are made of carbonate, sulphate, and chloride, the 
three principal acid radicles. The approximate amount of the 
alkaline earths, calcium and magnesium, can be computed from the 
total hardness; theoretically the total amount of these two bases 
must be between 40 per cent and 24 per cent of the total hardness 
expressed as CaC0 3 ; it usually lies between 37 per cent and 30 per 
cent, as the ratio of calcium to magnesium ranges from 7 to 1 : 
therefore, one-third of the hardness is a reasonable estimate of the 
alkaline earths that will usually be in error less than 10 per cent. 
The alkalies, sodium and potassium, can be computed by the Stabler 
formula already noted (p. 57). These estimates and computations 
of the amounts of the chief acids and bases can then be used in 
applying the following classification : 

Classification of water by chemical character. 

Calcium rCan f Carbonate ( C0 3)- 
Calcium (Caj 

Sodmm(Na)/ lchloride(Cl) 

The designation " calcium" indicates that calcium and magnesium 
predominate, and " sodium" that sodium and potassium predominate 
among the bases; the designation " carbonate," "sulphate," or " chlo- 
ride" shows which acid radicle predominates. Combination of the 
two terms classifies the water by type, and tabulation of the classifi- 
cation can be abbreviated by use of the symbols. The appellation 
Na-COg, for example, indicates that sodium and potassium pre- 
dominate among the bases and that carbonate or bicarbonate, or 
both, predominate among the acids, and that the water would yield 
on concentration and crystallization more sodium carbonate than 
any other salt, though this classification does not in any way show 
the amounts of the salts in solution. 



w a I EB FOB DOMESTIC USE. 



81 



The numerical preponderance of certain acid and basic radicles 
establishes the nature of many waters, but if further refinement in 
classification is desired comparison can be made of the reacting values 
of the radicles, which arc the fundamental bases of the effect of the 
radicles. These values can be computed by multiplying the amount 
of each constituent by its valence and dividing the product by its 
molecular weight. The factors given in Table 13 can be used for 
that purpose. The factor for sodium may bo used for the combined 
values of sodium and potassium. The reacting valuo of calcium and 
magnesium is nearly one-fiftieth of total hardness (II), as theoretic- 
ally H = 2.5 Ca + 4.1 Mg, whence 5Q = 0.050 Ca + 0.082 Mg. 

Table 13. — Factors for computing reacting values. 



Basic radicles. 



Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium (Na) 

Potassium (K).. 



Factor. 



0.0499 
.0821 
.0434 
.0255 



Acid radicles. 



Carbonate radicle (COd) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) 

Chlorine(Cl) 



Factor. 



0. 0333 
.0164 



.0161 
.0282 



TOTAL SOLIDS. 

Total solids can be computed from the data of a field assay in sev- 
eral ways, one of which is to calculate the probable amount of saline 
residue that would be produced by the acid radicles and to add 
thereto an arbitrary amount for silica, undetermined substances, and 
volatile matter. As potassium has the smallest reacting weight of 
the four common bases the assumptions that equal amounts of sodium 
and potassium are present and that calcium and magnesium are 
absent constitute an extreme condition representing a maximum 
saline residue; similarly, the assumptions that equal parts of calcium 
and magnesium are present and that the alkalies are absent consti- 
tute the condition representing a minimum saline residue. A formula 
based on an average between these two extremes gives an estimate of 
total solids (T. S.) within 15 per cent of the exact value for most 
natural waters. 



T. S. =SiO a + 1.73 CO3 + O.86 HCO3+ 1.48 S0 4 + 1.62 CI. 

The average content of silica (Si0 2 ) in most ground waters of San 

Joaquin Valley, according to available analyses, is about 30 parts per 

million in waters exceeding 400 parts of total solids and 50 parts in 

other waters. The estimate of solids should not be expressed more 

98205°— wsp 398—16 6 



82 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



closely than to the nearest 10 parts or with more than two significant 
figures, and it may be translated into words by the following rating: 

Table 14. — Rating of waters by total solids. 



Total solids (parts per 
million). 


Classification. 


More 
than— 


Not more 
than— 




150 

500 

2,000 


Low. 
Moderate. 
High. 
Very high. 


150 

500 
2,000 





PURIFICATION OF WATER. 

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS. 

Purification of water is removal or reduction in amount of the sub- 
stances that render waters in their raw state unsuitable for use. It 
is practiced on a large scale with one or more of three objects in view: 
First, to render the supply safe and unobjectionable for drinking; 
second, to reduce the amount of the mineral ingredients injurious to 
boilers; third, to remove substances injurious to machinery or to 
industrial products. The largest purification plants in this country 
have been constructed almost solely to render the waters potable; 
and some waters, when so purified, need no further treatment to 
make them suitable for steaming and for general industrial use. 
But many other waters are hard, and increased appreciation of the 
value of good water has resulted in demand for the removal of the 
hardening constituents also. 

Only a few settlements in San Joaquin Valley have surface water 
supplies for domestic use, and extensive installation of filter plants 
is doubtful. But if municipalities in the region ever adopt river 
supplies, filtration will be necessary because of the widespread pollu- 
tion of the streams by drainage from irrigated lands. The present 
general use of boiler compounds, however, even on the east side, indi- 
cates the advisability of water softening. Feed-water purification 
plants are now common on the west side, and future development of 
that region of highly mineralized waters will be accompanied by 
increase in the number of these plants. 

Removal of bacteria, especially those causing disease, and removal 
of turbidity, odor, taste, and iron are the principal requirements in 
purification of a municipal supply, elimination of bacteria and sus- 
pended matter being the most important. The common methods 
of effecting such purification are slow filtration through sand and 
rapid filtration after coagulation, both methods usually being com- 



PURIFICATION OF WATER. S.'i 

bined with sedimentation. 1 The first process is known as "slow 
Band" filtration and the second as "mechanical" or "rapid sand" 
lilt rat ion. The efficiency of such filters is measured primarily by 
the ratio between the number of bacteria In the applied water and 
the 11111111)01* in the effluent. This figure, stated in percentage of 
removal, should be as high as 98, and it often reaches 99.8 per cent 
under normal conditions with a carefully operated filter of either 
kind. 

Removal of scale-forming and neutralization of corrosive constitu- 
ents are the chief aims in preparing water for steam making. For 
this two general methods arc employed — cold chemical precipitation 
followed by sedimentation, and heating with or without chemicals, 
usually followed by rapid filtration. The first process is carried on 
in cold-water softening plants and the second in feed-water heaters. 

METHODS OF PURIFICATION. 

The requirements of the water supplies for industries are so varied 
that classification of purification methods is difficult. Water prop- 
erly prepared for domestic and boiler use is suitable for most industrial 
establishments, and it is more economical for small manufacturers 
in large cities to obtain such water from the city mains than to main- 
tain private supplies and purification apparatus. It is usually cheaper, 
however, for large factories to be supplied from separate sources, not 
only because of saving in actual cost of water but also because of the 
opportunity thus afforded of procuring water specially adapted to 
the needs of the factory. The common methods of industrial-water 
purification are those already mentioned, or combinations of them, 
modified to meet particular needs. In a few industrial processes, 
notably the manufacture of ice by the can system, water practically 
free from all dissolved and suspended substances is necessary and 
distilled water must be manufactured. Recent improvements in 
multiple-effect evaporators have greatly reduced the cost of distilla- 
tion, so that it is now economical to distill for industrial and domestic 
use many waters heretofore considered too highly mineralized to 
be treatable. Many large factories, hotels, and even municipalities 
have installed multiple-effect stills. 

Besides the four common systems of purification, many minor 
processes are used, sometimes alone, but more frequently as adjuncts 
to filters or softeners. Surface waters are screened through wooden 
or iron grids or through revolving wire screens to remove. sticks and 
leaves before other treatment. Coarse suspended matter can be re- 
moved by rapid filtration through ground quartz or similar material, 
in units of convenient size, provided with arrangements for wash- 

i For description of filters see Johnson, G. A., The purification of public water supplies: U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 315, 1913. 



84 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

ing the filtering medium similar to those used in mechanical niters. 
Very turbid river waters may be first allowed to stand in large 
sedimentation basins in order to reduce the cost of operating the 
filters by preliminary removal of a large part of the suspended solids. 
Supplies undesirable only because of their iron content are aerated 
by being sprayed into the air or by being allowed to trickle over 
rocks or by other methods that cause evaporation of carbonic acid 
and absorption of oxygen, thus precipitating and oxidizing the iron 
in solution so that it can readily be removed by rapid filtration. 
Similar aeration is employed to evaporate and oxidize dissolved 
gases that cause objectionable tastes and odors. 

Disinfection by ozone, copper sulphate, calcium hypochlorite, 
and many other substances kills organisms that may cause disease 
or impart bad odors and tastes. Purification of this character must 
be done with substances that destroy the objectionable organisms 
without making the water poisonous to animals. Calcium hypo- 
chlorite, sodium hypochlorite, and chlorine gas are used to disinfect 
drinking water, and treatment with these substances is now widely 
practiced either as an adjunct to filtration or as an emergency pre- 
caution where otherwise untreated supplies are believed to be con- 
taminated. Disinfection by this method is not a substitute for 
purification by filtration, for it does not remove suspended matter 
nor appreciable amounts of color, organic matter, swampy tastes f 
or odors, and it does not soften water. 1 Natural purification of 
water is accomplished largely through biologic processes, 2 in which 
the organic matter is oxidized by serving as food for bacteria and 
objectionable organisms are destroyed by the production of con- 
ditions unfavorable to their existence. Action of this kind takes 
place in reservoirs and lakes, and it is also relied upon in many proc- 
esses for the artificial purification of sewage. 3 

SLOW SAND FILTRATION. 

Slow sand filtration consists in causing water to pass downward 
through a layer of sand of such thickness and fineness that the 
requisite removal of suspended substances is accomplished. The 
slow sand filter is also called the " continuous" and the "English" 
filter. On the bottom of a water-tight basin, commonly constructed 
of concrete, perforated tiles or pipes laid in the form of a grid are 
covered with a foot of gravel graded in size from 25 to 3 millimeters 
in diameter from bottom to top. A layer of fine sand, 3 to 4 feet 
deep, is put over the gravel, which serves only to support the sand. 

1 Op. cit.,p. 71. 

2 Hazen, Allen, Clean water and how to get it, p. 83, New York, 1907. 

3 Winslow, C.-E. A., and Phelps, E. B., Investigations on the purification of Boston sewage, with a 
history of the sewage-disposal problem: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 185, 1906. 



PUBIFIC \ I ION OF WATER. N."i 

When water is applied on the surface, It passes through the sand and 
the gravel and flows away through the underdrain. The suspended 
materials, including bacteria, are removed by the sand, the action of 
which is rendered more efficient by the rapid formation of a mat of 
finely divided sediment on its surface. When this film has become 
so thick (hat filtration is unduly retarded, the wafer is allowed f<> 
subside and about, half an Inch of sand is removed, after which fijtra- 
tion is resumed. The sand thus taken off is washed to free it from 
the collected impurities and is replaced on the beds after they have 
been reduced about a foot in thickness by successive scrapings. As 
cleaning necessitates temporary withdrawal of filters from service, 
they are divided into units of convenient size, usually one-half to 
1 acre each, so that the operation of the en the system may not be 
interrupted. Most modern filters are roofed and sodded, as this 
facilitates cleaning by preventing the formation of ice, permits work 
on the filter beds in all kinds of weather, inhibits algae growths, and 
prevents agitation of the water by wind and rain. 

The foregoing are the essential features of a slow sand filter, 
but several adjuncts render this system more efficient. A clear- 
water basin for the filtered supply, covered to prevent deterioration 
of the water, is provided in order that the varying rate of consump- 
tion may not unduly affect the rate of filtration. Clarification of 
turbid water is rendered more economical by allowing it to stand for 
one to three days, during which a large portion of the suspended 
matter is deposited, so that the time between sand scrapings is 
lengthened. In some plants roughing or preliminary filters con- 
sisting of beds of coarse sand or fine crushed stone are provided, 
through which the water flows 15 to 20 times as fast as through the 
sand filters, a very large proportion of the suspended matter being 
thus removed. Objectionable odors and tastes may be obviated by 
aeration before or after filtration. Killing the bacteria before filtra- 
tion by use of chlorine or other germicides is also practiced. 

Slow sand filtration removes practically all the suspended matter 
and the bacteria. Color is only slightly reduced and hardness is not 
changed. The process is specially adapted to waters low in color 
and suspended matter and slightly polluted. Very small particles of 
clay are not removed by these filters and waters carrying such par- 
ticles only for short periods may be benefited by the occasional 
addition of a coagulant before filtration. It can readily be- seen that 
the efficiency of this kind of filter depends largely on the character 
of the sand, as the ability to prevent the passage of suspended matter 
is governed by the size of the spaces between the sand particles. 
The rate of filtration depends on the average size of the sand par- 
ticles, the thickness of the sand bed, the head of water, and the 
turbidity. Under ordinary conditions of operation in the United 



86 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

States the rate of slow sand filtration of water previously subjected 
to sedimentation is 2,000,000 to 4,000,000 gallons per acre per day. 

RAPID SAND FILTRATION. 

The rapid sand filter is also known as the American filter, and 
until recently it was generally styled the "mechanical" filter, because 
of its contrivances for washing the sand. Its distinctive features are 
its use of a coagulant and its high rate of filtration. While the raw 
water is entering the sedimentation basin, which is smaller than that 
used with slow sand filters, it is treated with a definite proportion of 
some coagulant, which forms by its decomposition a gelatinous pre- 
cipitate that unites and incloses the suspended material, including 
the bacteria, and absorbs the organic coloring matter. This com- 
bined action destroys color and makes suspended particles larger and 
therefore more readily removable. When aluminum sulphate, the 
coagulant most commonly used, is decomposed aluminum hydrate is 
precipitated and the sulphate radicle remains in solution, replacing 
an equivalent amount of the carbonate, bicarbonate, or hydrate 
radicle. One part per million of ordinary aluminum sulphate requires 
somewhat more than 0.6 part of alkalinity expressed as CaC0 3 to 
insure complete decomposition. 1 The natural alkalinity of many 
waters is sufficient to effect this reaction. If the alkalinity is not 
sufficient part of the aluminum sulphate remains in solution and 
good coagulation does not take place. Therefore lime or soda ash is 
added if the alkalinity is too low. The proper amount of aluminum 
sulphate to be used is determined by the amounts of color, organic 
matter, and suspended matter, and by the fineness of the suspended 
matter, and it is best ascertained by direct experimentation with the 
water to be purified. Much of the trouble in operating the earlier 
types of rapid filters has been caused by failure to produce a good 
"floe" or precipitation because of improper ratios of coagulant and 
alkalinity. 

Ferrous sulphate instead of aluminum sulphate is used as a coagu- 
lant in some filtration plants. With this substance lime must be 
added in order to bring about proper coagulation. 

The water, after having been mixed with the coagulant, is allowed 
to stand three or four hours in the sedimentation basin, where a large 
proportion of the suspended particles is deposited. It is then passed 
rapidly through beds of sand or ground stone to remove the rest of 
the suspended matter. Many filters now in use are built in cylin- 
drical form 10 to 20 feet in diameter, and some are so designed that 
filtration can be hastened by pressure. The sand, 30 to 50 inches 
deep and coarser than that used in slow sand filters, rests on a metallic 

1 Hazen, Allen, Report of the filtration commission of the city of Pittsburgh, p. 57, 1899. 



ITKIIICATION OF WATKK. S, 

floor containing perforations large enough t<> allow ready issue of the 
water, but small enough to prevent passage of sand grains. When 
the Biter has become clogged the How of water is reversed, filtered 
water being forced upward through the sand to wash it and to remove 

the impurities, which pass over the top of the filter with the wasted 
water. A revolving rake with long prongs projecting downward into 
the sand mixes it during washing and prevents it from becoming 
graded into spots of coarse or fine particles. Tn recently constructed 
works rectangular niters 300 to 1,300 square feet in area have been 
built, in which the sand is agitated during washing b} r compressed 
air forced through it at intervals instead of by a revolving rake. 
Larger orifices in the strainers are also being used, the passage of sand 
being prevented by fine gravel over the strainer pipes. The rate of 
filtration is from 100,000,000 to 120,000,000 gallons per acre per day. 
The time between washing is 6 to 12 hours, depending principally on 
the turbidity of the applied water. 

Mechanical filtration removes practically all suspended matter, 
reduces the color to unobjectionable proportions, and under some 
conditions removes part of the dissolved iron. The permanent 
hardness of the water is increased in proportion to the amount of 
sulphate added by the coagulant, and if only enough lime to decom- 
pose the coagulant is added, the total hardness is slightly increased. 
If larger amounts of lime are added, however, the total hardness 
is reduced. If soda ash is used in place of lime the foaming con- 
stituents are slightly increased. The chemicals are always added 
in solution. As this method of filtration is used almost entirely 
for river waters with fluctuating contents of suspended and dissolved 
matter proper operation requires constant and intelligent attention. 

COLD-WATER SOFTENING. 

The principal objects of water softening are to remove the sub- 
stances that cause incrustations in boilers, particularly calcium and 
magnesium, and to neutralize those that cause corrosion. Solutions 
of chemicals of known strength are added to the raw supply in such 
proportion as to precipitate all the dissolved constituents that can 
be economically removed by such treatment. The water is then 
allowed to stand long enough to permit the precipitate to settle, 
after which the clear effluent is drawn off; or the partly clarified 
effluent may be filtered very rapidly through thin beds of coke, 
sponge, excelsior, bagging, or similar material in order to remove 
particles that have not subsided in the tanks. The water softeners 
on the market differ from one another chiefly in the precipitant, 
in the filtering medium if one is used, and in the mechanism regu- 
lating the incorporation of the chemicals with the water. Installa- 
tions may be of any size to suit consumption, and the process can 



88 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

be combined with rapid sand filtration for purifying municipal 
supplies. Among the substances that have been proposed as precipi- 
tants are sodium carbonate (soda ash), silicate, hydrate (caustic), 
fluoride, and phosphate; barium carbonate, oxide, and hydrate: 
and calcium oxide (quicklime). Lime and soda ash, however, are 
almost exclusively used on account of their excellent action and 
comparative cheapness. 

When soda ash (Na 2 CO a ) and lime dissolved in water to form a 
solution of calcium hydrate, Ca(OH) 2 , are added to a water in proper 
proportion free acids are neutralized, free carbon dioxide is removed, 
bicarbonate is decomposed, and iron, aluminum, and magnesium 
hydrates and calcium carbonate are precipitated. The precipitate 
in settling takes down with it a large proportion of the suspended 
matter. The treatment removes the incrusting constituents prac- 
tically to the limit of their solubility, and also removes the calcium 
added as lime. Sodium, potassium, sulphate, and chloride are left 
in solution, and the alkalies are increased in proportion to the quan- 
tity of soda ash added; that is, the foaming constituents are increased, 
and the maximum proportion of these that is allowable in the treated 
water fixes the maximum proportion of incrustants that a raw water 
can contain and be satisfactorily treated. The proportion of in- 
crustants left in a treated water is determined by the solubility of 
the precipitated substances and by the completeness of the reaction 
between the added chemicals and the dissolved matter. It has been 
brought below 90 parts per million in some well-treated waters. 
The sulphate radicle can be removed by using barium compounds, 
which precipitate barium sulphate, but the poisonous effect of even 
small amounts of barium and the relatively high cost of its salts 
are great objections to their use. The chlorides are not changed 
in amount by water softening. The chemicals should be very 
thoroughly mixed with the raw water and sufficient time should be 
allowed for complete reaction, which proceeds rather slowly, for 
otherwise precipitation will occur later in pipe lines or in boilers. 

FEED-WATER HEATING. 

Water heaters are designed primarily to utilize waste heat in 
stationary boiler plants by raising the temperature of the feed water 
and thereby lessening the work of the boilers themselves, but they 
also effect some purification, and many heaters have been specially 
designed with that end in view. The heat is derived from exhaust 
steam or from flue gases. Heaters utilizing steam either are open — 
that is, operated at atmospheric pressure — or are closed and operated 
at or near boiler pressure. In accordance with these different con- 
ditions, which result in distinct purifying effects, feed-water heaters 



PURIFICATION <>r WATER. V.) 



n <j 



Are classified as "open" or "closed" or "economizers," the last bei: 
those using flue gases. In most forms of open heaters, which are 
best adapted for removing large quantities of the materials that form 
soft scale, the steam enters at the bottom and the water at the top, 
and intimate contact between the two is obtained by spraying the 
water or by allowing it to trickle over or to splash against plates. 
By this process the water is quickly heated nearly to boiling; dis- 
solved gases are expelled; bicarbonate is decomposed; and iron, 
aluminum, part of the magnesium, and calcium equivalent to the 
carbonate after decomposition of the bicarbonate are precipitated as 
hydrates, oxides, and carbonates under varying conditions of tem- 
perature, pressure, and time. The precipitate agglomerates the 
particles of suspended matter and makes them more readily removable 
by sedimentation and filtration. The slowness with which the 
reactions take place and the presence of acid radicles other than 
carbonate to hold the bases in solution prevent complete removal 
of calcium and magnesium. The addition of soda ash in proper 
proportion, however, effects fairly complete precipitation of the 
alkaline earths, and apparatus for constant introduction of this 
chemical in solution may be provided. Open heaters operated 
without a chemical precipitant remove constituents that are soft and 
bulky and leave those that form hard scale. Scale from water 
treated without chemicals in such heaters is therefore not so great 
in amount but is harder than that formed by the raw water. After the 
precipitate has been formed the water passes through filters of burlap, 
excelsior, straw, hay, wool, coke, or similar material, arranged in 
units that can readily be cleaned. 

In closed heaters the water is passed through tubes surrounded 
by steam or around steam pipes, and manholes or other openings 
are provided for removing the scale from the tubes. As the water 
is heated under pressure some precipitation takes place, but closed 
heaters are not so efficient in this respect as open heaters, because 
they do not permit the escape of the gases liberated from the water. 
This objection does not hold if treatment in a closed heater follows 
treatment in an open one from which the gases escape. Several 
systems accomplish very good purification by using a unit of each 
type in series. 

Economizers consist essentially of water tubes set in the flues 
leading from the furnaces. Facilities are provided for cleaning scale 
from the inside and soot from the outside of the tubes. As econo- 
mizers are heated by flue gases, the water in the tubes can be heated 
under pressure to much higher temperature than in open or closed 
heaters, and conditions of ordinary boiler operation are approxi- 
mated. The precipitation of incrustants varies greatly with the 
normally fluctuating temperature of the flue gases. 



90 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE SURFACE WATERS. 

RIVERS. 

During a study of the quality of the surface waters of California 
conducted by the Geological Survey in cooperation with the California 
Department of Engineering in 1906-1908 samples of water collected 
daily for a period of one year at selected stations on several rivers 
in San Joaquin Valley were united in sets of 7 or 10 consecutive 
samples as deemed advisable, and analyses were then made of the 
composites thus obtained. As the complete analyses have already 
been published * it is sufficient here to quote only the mean, maxi- 
mum, and minimum conditions of chemical composition during the 
progress of the investigation. The analyses prior to March, 1906, 
were made by F. M. Eaton; for the remainder of that year they were 
made by P. L. McCreary; and during 1908 by Walton Van Winkle, 
who was assisted by W J McGee, William Reinhart, and W. C. 
Packard. 

i Van Winkle, Walton, and Eaton, F. M., The quality of the surface waters of California: U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 237, 1910. 



OHBMIOAl COMPOSITION 0] THE SURFACE WATERS, 



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GROUND WATEK IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



The extremes of suspended and dissolved solids that are indicated 
in Table 15 did not necessarily occur at the same time, but the 
amounts of the various dissolved constituents correspond to the 
reported dissolved solids. The waters of Mokelumne, Stanislaus, 
Tuolumne, and Merced rivers, which were sampled at or near the 
entrance of the streams into the valley and before they have been 
used for irrigation, are low in all constituents,* and they compare 
favorably with the waters of rivers along the Atlantic Coast, which 
are considered entirely acceptable in respect to their mineral con- 
stituents. The water of Hudson River at Hudson, N. Y., though 
less changeable in quality, is distinctly higher than any of these in 
dissolved matter, and the water of Lake Superior, carrying 60 parts 
per million of dissolved matter, is only slightly lower in mineral con- 
tent. Though the California stream waters fluctuate considerably 
in their load of mineral matter, they are no more highly mineralized 
at their worst than the best of the ground waters. They would be 
classed as moderately soft by the most critical standards; they are 
low in dissolved scaling and foaming constituents, and therefore 
sedimentation to remove the varying amounts of suspended matter is 
all that is required to make them good boiler waters. The com- 
puted alkali coefficients indicate that the waters even at the lowest 
stages are excellent for use in irrigation, and this classification is 
amply corroborated by experience. Kern River, sampled at the 
mouth of the canyon 5 miles northeast of Bakersfield, is somewhat 
higher in mineral content than the other streams, but still it is 
moderate. Such increase in the southern end of the valley is natural 
in view of the low rainfall, which has been insufficient to remove 
from the ground the accumulation of soluble salts. 

The analyses of water from San Joaquin River at the Southern 
Pacific Co.'s bridge near Lathrop, a few miles above Stockton (San 
Joaquin Bridge), show how evaporation, seepage from irrigated 
tracts, and surface and subsurface drainage from the entire valley 
increase the mineral content of the outflowing water and tend to 
differentiate it from the mountain tributaries. Yet, even though the 
river water is subject to these adverse influences, it is acceptable for 
irrigation and for boiler use. It varies greatly in quality from season 
to season, being lowest in dissolved matter during the spring freshets 
and highest during the fall when the river is at its lowest stages. 

Table 16. — Mean discharge of certain tributaries of San Joaquin River compared with 
the mean mineral content of that stream during 1906 and 1908. 



Mean suspended matter in the water of San Joaquin River near Lathrop (parts per 

million) 

Mean dissolved matter in the water of San Joaquin River near Lathrop (parts per million) 
Mean discharge in second-feet per square mile: « 

Stanislaus River at Knights Ferry 

Tuolumne River at Lagrange 

Merced River at Merced Falls 

* U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 213 and 251. 



1906 


60 
161 

3.63 
3.33 
2.63 



1908 



52 
205 



,837 
,960 
,631 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE SURFACE WATERS. 



93 



The difference between the average quality of (lie water of San 
Joaquin River during different years is not very great, as the data 
in Table 16 indicate. The mean discharge of the three principal 
tributaries was approximately lour times as great in 1906 as in 1908, 
but the amount of dissolved matter at Sao Joaquin Bridge was less 
than 30 per cent greater during the dry year, and the decrease of 
suspended matter corresponding to the decrease in discharge is only 
13 per cent. In general suspended matter varies directly and dis- 
solved matter inversely with the discharge of streams, but these 
relations are neither absolute nor invariable, and study of analyses of 
several other river waters has demonstrated that the fluctuation of 
the average content of mineral matter is not so great from year to 
year as the fluctuation in discharge. 

Table 17. — Comparison of the average condition of the water of San Joaquin River with 
the average condition of three tributaries in 1906. 





Parts per million. 


Percentage of anhydrous residue. 


Constituents. 


Stanis- 
laus 
R iver at 
Knights 

Ferry. 


Tuolum- 
ne River 
at La- 
grange. 


Merced 

River at 

Merced 

Falls. 


San 

Joaquin 

River 

near 

Lathrop. 


Stanis- 
laus 
River at 
Knights 

Ferry. 


Tuolum- 
ne River 
at La- 
grange. 


Merced 

River at 

Merced 

Falls. 


San 

Joaquin 

River 

near 
Lathrop. 


Suspended matter. . . 


140 
83 
48 
14 

.20 
11 
5.0 

11 

.0 

46 
11 
5.6 


68 
74 
43 
11 

.19 
10 
4.3 

12 

.0 

41 

12 
6.6 


52 

65 

39 

14 
.10 
9.1 
3.8 

9.3 

.0 

35 
11 
5.6 


60 

161 

78 

16 

.23 
18 
8.0 

27 

.0 

66 
26 
30 
















Total hardness a 










Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 


17.3 

.3 

13.6 

6.2 

13.6 

28.5 


14.4 

.2 

13.1 

5.6 

15.8 

26.3 


20.0 

.2 

13.0 

5.4 

13.3 

24.3 


10.1 
.1 


Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potas- 
sium (Na+K) 

Carbonate 'radicle 
(C0 3 ) 


11.4 

5.1 

17.1 
20.9 


Bicarbonate radicle 
(HC0 3 ) 




Sulphate radicle (SOi) 
Chlorine (CI) 


13.6 
6.9 


15.8 

8.8 


15.8 
8.0 


16.4 
18.9 







a Computed. 

Comparison of the average condition of the San Joaquin for 1906 
with the average condition of Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and Merced 
rivers, the three tributaries entering above San Joaquin Bridge, 
brings out the essential differences in the waters (Table 17). Though 
nearly all constituents are greater in quantity in the San Joaquin the 
principal change in chemical composition is increase of the percentages 
of sodium, potassium, and chlorine at the expense of carbonate; in 
other words, chlorides of the alkalies are added to the solution. The 
moderate increase in mineral constituents is less than what might be 
expected in view of the high mineral content of the west-side ground 
waters and the semiarid condition of the valley. 



94 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



TULARE LAKE. 



The usually high mineral content of the water as well as the inter- 
mittent nature of Tulare Lake prevents its use for irrigation. As 
the landlocked basin forms an immense evaporating pan in a semiarid 
region the dissolved salts that are brought in by tributary streams 
have been deposited in the lake bed after the water has evaporated, 
the salts being partly redissolved later or left under or mixed with 
protective layers of silt. That such successive concentrations, dilu- 
tions, and depositions have taken place for many centuries is shown 
by the known history of the lake and by the highly mineralized con- 
dition of the first few hundred feet of silt underlying its bed. 

When the area of the lake has been greatest the proportion of sub- 
stances in solution has been low enough to permit use of the water 
for irrigation, but its usual unfitness is established by analyses made 
by chemists at the agricultural experiment station of the Univer- 
sity of California under the direction of E. W. Hilgard. The results 
of their tests, given in Table 18, can not be reduced to ionic form 
because of the methods of analysis and they are therefore given in 
the original hypothetical combinations, the only change being that 
the amounts have been converted from grains per gallon to parts per 
million. 

Table 18. — Partial analyses of water from Tulare Lakefl 



[Parts per million.] 





Total 
residue. 


Residue 
insoluble 
in water. 


Organic 
and vola- 
tile matter. 


Sodium 
carbonate. 


Sodium 
chloride, 

sodium 

sulphate, 

etc. 


A 


1,445 
1,403 
1,401 
1,399 
1,400 
3,504 
5,188 
660 
1,301 


230 

92 

128 


38 
91 

76 


478 
604 
521 


648 
616 
676 


B 


C 


D 


E 


143 
63 

119 
88 

113 


39 
241 
276 

85 

77 


478 

1,272 

1,622 

230 

530 


740 


F. 


G 


3,170 

873 
581 


H 

I 





A. Near southeast corner of the lake inside of Root Island, 300 yards from shore. 

B. Near middle of lake at surface. 

C. Near middle of lake at depth of 10 feet. 

D. Near middle of lake at depth of 20 feet. (The first four samples apparently were collected m the 
spring of 1880.) 

E. Sample collected in January, 1880. 

F. Sample collected in June, 1888. 

G. Sample collected in February, 1889. 

H. Near mouth of Kings River, March 28, 1880. Taken at surface when a strong wind brought m more 
river water than usual. 
I. Near outlet of West Side Canal at depth of 10 feet. (Probably taken at same time as sample H.) 

Samples A to E inclusive were collected in 1880 while the lake was 
decreasing in size and its dissolved salts were being concentrated. 
The samples collected at reasonable distance from the shore indicate 
that the lake throughout carried practically the same amounts of 

a Compiled from Calfornia Univ. Agr. Exper. Sta., Rept. for 1890, appendix. 



CIIKMKWL COMPOSITION OK 'NIK SUKFACK WATERS. 



95 



dissolved matter. The water at that time was too high in mineral 
content to he suitable for use. Samples F and (1, taken in L888 and 
1889 while tho lake was low, show much greater concentration of the 
soluhle substances, tho total residue having become more than tripled 
in 1889. Tho results of these tests prove the futility of any project 
involving use of tho lake waters for irrigation. If the supply were 
suitable during uncertain periods when the lake is largo the inevi- 
table concentration accompanying evaporation would make the water 
dangerous during low stages. Dilution of such strong water by mix- 
ing it with a supply from Kings River would result in reducing one 
excellent water to poor condition. 

Table 19. — Chemical composition of the water of Tulare Lake a 



Constituents. 



Total solids 

Organic and volatile matter. 

Silica(Si0 2 ) 

Alumina ( AI2O3) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium (Na) 

Potassium (K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3). 

Sulphate radicle (S O4) , 

Chlonne(Cl) 

Scale-forming ingredients (s) . 

Foaming ingredients (f) 

Probability of corrosion (c)&. , 
Alkali coefficient (inches) 



Parts per million. 



1,400 
39 

8 



20 

24 

458 

25 



735 
230 
236 
107 
1,300 
N. C. 
2.2 



1,401 
76 
12 
5 
17 
21 

460 



755 
203 
210 
102 
1,240 
N.C. 
2.2 



5,188 
276 
32 



14 
13 

1,760 
120 



1,945 

1,020 

994 

95 

5,100 

N.C. 



Percentage of anhydrous 
residue. 



1.47 
1.76 

33.60 
1.83 

26.56 



16.87 
17.32 



100.00 



0.92 

.38 

1.31 

1.62 

35.38 

28.62 



15.61 
16.16 



0.65 



35.83 

2.44 

19.52 



20.76 
20.26 



100.00 100.00 



a Analyses made in the chemical laboratory of the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of 
California. 
b N. C.=noncorrosive. 

Table 19, giving the chemical composition of the lake water in 
parts per million and in percentage of the anhydrous residue, shows 
in more detail the nature and amounts of the dissolved substances. 
Analysis No. 1, corresponding to E in Table 18, gives the composition 
in January, 1880; No. 2 is apparently the same as C (Table 18), 
collected in the spring of 1880; and No. 3 shows the composition in 
February, 1889. The analyses, stated by Hilgard in hypothetical 
combinations, have been computed to ionic form and to parts per 
million by the writer. The water belongs to the sodium carbonate 
type, the proportion of alkaline earths being low. The percentage 
of calcium and magnesium decreased greatly between 1880 and 1889, 
a change compensated by a proportionate increase in alkalies. The 
relative amount of carbonate decreased appreciably, while sulphate 
and chloride correspondingly increased. This indicates the deposi- 
tion of alkaline-earth carbonates. The alkali coefficients are so low 



96 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

that the water could not be considered suitable for irrigation. Though 
the amounts of scale-forming ingredients are low, and such waters 
would probably not corrode boilers, the contents of foaming constit- 
uents would render such supplies unfit for boiler service. Tulare 
Lake may be regarded as a catch basin whose water is valueless. 

BUENA VISTA RESERVOIR. 

Kern River has several delta channels spread fanlike in the valley 
west of Bakersfield, and some of these channels formerly conveyed 
the water of the river to a shallow depression comprising the basins 
of Kern and Buena Vista lakes and Buena Vista Swamp. In recent 
years, however, the original courses have been modified by levees 
and diversion canals until at present none of the flow reaches Kern 
Lake basin except intermittently through an irrigating ditch, and 
only the flow at high stages is directed toward Buena Vista reservoir. 
This body of water, occupying the former basin of Buena Vista Lake, 
in T. 31 S., R. 25 E., and T. 32 S., R. 25 E., is a storage reservoir for 
irrigation canals to the northwest. It is separated by a levee from 
the basin of Kern Lake, whose bed is now dry and under cultivation. 
The analysis of a sample from the east end of Buena Vista reservoir 
in the spring of 1896 is reported in Table 20. 

Table 20. — Partial analysis of water from Buena Vista reservoir. 1 
[Parts per million.] 

Total residue 503 

Organic and volatile matter 100 

Residue insoluble in water Ill 

Residue soluble in water 292 

Soluble residue: 

Sodium sulphate 269 

Sodium chloride 23 

Sodium carbonate 

Insoluble residue: 

Silica 53 

Carbonates of calcium and magnesium and calcium sulphate . . 58 

When the water is in the condition shown by these tests, or is more 
dilute, it is suitable for irrigation and for use in boilers. The water 
may be prevented from becoming too strong by continual replenish- 
ment from Kern Kiver. Water from Kern Lake on March 24, 1880, 
before it dried up, contained more than 3,600 parts per million 2 of 
mineral matter and was bad for irrigation. 

1 Analysis performed in the laboratory of the California Agricultural Experiment Station under direc- 
tion of E. H. Loughridge. California Univ. Agr. Exper. Sta. Rept. for 1895-1897, p. 77. Converted into 
parts pel million by the writer. 

2 California Univ. Agr. Exper. Sta. Rept. for 1890, appendix, p. 48. 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE SURFACE WATERS. ( .)7 

DENUDATION AND DEPOSITION. 
BATE OF DENUDATION IN THE SIEBRA. 

San Joaquin Valley has been filled by alluvium deposited by entering 
streams, but bow much of the deposition took place in an arm of the 
ocean, how much in a fresh-water lake, and how much above water, 
and many other circumstances of the fluvial upbuilding arc more or 
less conjectural. The rate at which material in the active basin of 
San Joaquin River— the portion east of the present river bed and 
north of Kings River — is now being moved has been calculated from 
the analyses quoted in Table 15 and gagings of the tributaries, and 
the results of these calculations are summarized in Table 21. During 
1906 approximately 225 tons per square mile in the form of dissolved 
matter and 265 tons per square mile in the form of suspended matter 
were transported from the slopes of the Sierra Nevada into the valley. 

Table 21. — Rate of denudation on part of the western dope of the Sierra Nevada in 1906. 



Drainage basin. 



Mokelumne River above Clem- 
ents 

Stanislaus River above 
Knights Ferry 

Tuolumne River above La- 
grange 

Merced River above Merced 
Falls 



Sq. mi. 

642 

935 

1,500 

1,090 



Mean run- 
Otf.a 



Sec.-ft. 
per sq. mi. 

3.04 

3.63 

3.33 

2.63 



Weighted mean. 



Mineral content of 
water. 



Average 

suspended 

matter.* 



Paris per 
million. 

84 

140 

68 

52 



Average 
dissolved 
matter. & 



Parts per 
million. 

75 

83 

74 



Denudation. 



Suspended 
matter. 



Tons per 

sq. mi. per 

year. 

232 

472 

188 

197 



265 



Dissolved 
matter. 



Tons per 

sq. mi. per 

year. 

224 

296 

243 

168 



225 



a V. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 213, 1907. 
b U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 237, 1910. 

The figures of denudation in tons of dissolved matter per square 
mile per year in Table 21 have been computed by multiplying together 
the mean run-off, the average dissolved matter, and the factor 0.985. 
Denudation as suspended matter can not be so well approximated by 
similar computation with averages because the amount of suspended 
matter carried during a heavy flood may be greater than that during 
all the rest of the year. Therefore, denudation as suspended matter 
has been computed for each 10-day period represented by the samples, 
and the sum of these estimates has been divided by the area of the 
basin to obtain the denudation in tons per square mile per year in 
the form of suspended matter. Thus the removal of material from 
4,167 square miles of the Sierra has been estimated. If it is assumed 
that the denudation on the first three basins is typical of the north- 
98205°— wsp 398—16^—7 



98 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

ern two-thirds of the mountain slope and that that on Merced River 
basin is typical of the southern third, the weighted means for the 7,500 
square miles of the Sierra tributary to San Joaquin Valley north of 
Kings River may be obtained. These two figures represent an 
annual movement of 1,700,000 tons of dissolved matter and 2,000,000 
tons of suspended matter into the valley. This is equivalent to a 
denudation of 26 ten-thousandths of an inch annually, or 1 inch 
in 385 years, a high rate of denudation. 

These estimates do not take into account the dissolved matter that 
is carried into the valley by the ground waters, but as the present 
problem is essentially one of silt movement this chemically dis- 
solved matter can be neglected. No allowance has been made for 
the "bottom load," or material rolled along the beds of the streams, 
because the meager information in reference to this manner of trans- 
portation tends to show that the bottom load moved past a given 
point in a river that is not overloaded is a very small percentage of 
the total load. The sectional area of the heavy load near the bottom 
is only a # small part of the total cross section through which sus- 
pended matter is transported, and the bottom load necessarily moves 
more slowly than the lower filaments of water, which in turn move 
more slowly than any other waters in the cross section. Therefore, 
though bottom material may be obvious because of the size of its 
particles, it probably constitutes only a small fraction by weight of 
the total material that is moved. 

How long a period may be represented by estimates based on one 
year's studies is uncertain. According to the figures representing 
the mean discharge of several streams in the valley, 1 the run-off during 
1906 was considerably higher than normal, and the estimates of trans- 
ported silt may, therefore, be considered greater than the normal for 
the present century. 

RATE OF DEPOSITION IN THE VALLEY. 

As no measurements of the discharge of San Joaquin River near 
Lathrop were made during the period in which samples were col- 
lected, 1.00 second-foot per square mile has been taken as a reasonable 
estimate of the average run-off throughout the 16,500 square miles 
of the basin north of Tulare Lake. This figure and the averages of 
analyses at Lathrop for 1906 (Table 17) give the annual removal of 
material by San Joaquin River as 2,600,000 tons of dissolved and 
1,000,000 tons of suspended matter. That is, about 1,000,000 tons 
more of suspended matter and 900,000 tons less of dissolved matter 
are brought into the valley annually by the active east-side tribu- 
taries of the San Joaquin than are carried to the bay. The excess 

i Clapp, W. B., The surface water supply of California: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 213, 1907. 



n PBS OF GROUND WATER. 99 

of dissolved matter undoubtedly is contributed by underflow. 
Though no perennial streams enter San Joaquin River from the west 

side above, the sampling station at San Joaquin Bridge, some sus- 
pended and dissolved matter undoubtedly reaches the main stream 
over the surface during the rainy season. On the other hand, some 
of the suspended material brought into the valley by mountain 
streams is later disintegrated and dissolved and passes out in solution. 
These features slightly modify the estimates, some increasing and 
others decreasing the computed differences between outgoing and 
incoming material; due allowance for their influence, however, seems 
to be made by assuming that the difference between the amounts of 
outgoing and incoming silt represents the present annual accretion. 
This quantity, 1,000,000 tons, distributed evenly over the 3,500 
square miles of plains region between San Joaquin River and the 
Sierra would represent an annual deposition of 285 tons per square 
mile. If this material, thoroughly dried and compacted by pressure, 
is assumed to weigh 100 pounds per cubic foot, 1 it would represent 
an annual upbuilding of 24 ten- thousandths of an inch, or 1 inch in 
about 420 years. 

As wells in the valley have penetrated 2,000 to 2,500 feet of sedi- 
ment, this annual accretion would indicate a period of not less than 
6,000,000 years for the fluvial filling. It is, of course, absolutely a 
matter of speculation whether the present rate of deposition repre- 
sents the average rate during the entire period in which the valley 
has been filled. Mr. Mendenhall states (p. 28) that u the wells 
drilled throughout the valley prove that the sediments underlying it 
are all fine," and this indicates that past rates of deposition could 
not have been much greater than the present rate, for if they had 
been the transported material w T ould have been coarser and the parti- 
cles of deeper sediments in the valley would now be larger than those of 
the upper sediments. But even under the extreme assumption that 
4,000,000 tons, or twice the present amount, of silt had been brought 
annually into the valley and that none of it had been transported to 
the ocean, the time of filling would not be less than 1,500,000 years. 
This calculation, approximate and based on hypotheses though it 
may be, indicates that the time occupied by the valley filling in- 
volves geologic periods and not a few thousand years. 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE GROUND WATERS. 

TYPES OF GROUND WATER. 

The wells in San Joaquin Valley north of Tulare County yield three 
general types of water in relation to geographic position. The east- 
side and west-side types, named, as may be inferred, from their 

1 Dole, R. B., and Stabler, Herman, Denudation: In U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 234, p. 
80,1909. 



100 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

position in the valley, are distinguishable from each other par- 
ticularly by their difference in content of sulphate (S0 4 ), and the 
intermediate or axial type, occurring along the strip between the 
areas of typical east-side and west-side waters and -blending into 
them, is distinguishable chiefly by its relatively high content of 
alkalies. As this geographic grouping greatly facilitates under- 
standing of the general characteristics of the ground supplies and 
their usefulness discussion of it has been taken up in as much detail 
as the assays warrant. When the determinations of sulphate are 
plotted on a map, as in Plate II (in pocket), it is seen that nearly all 
the waters high in sulphate and no waters low in sulphate were 
found on the west side; and that very few waters on the east side 
north of Kern County contain more than 10 parts per million of 
sulphate. Waters high in sulphate are scattered over the east side 
of Kern County, but not enough tests were made to warrant definite 
conclusions regarding their distribution, and the following statements 
therefore relate particularly to conditions in the area north of that 
county. 

CONDITIONS NORTH OF KINGS RIVER. 

OCCURRENCE OF SULPHATE AND NONSULPHATE WATERS. 

Water from wells less than 1,200 feet deep contains 80 to 2,000 
parts per million of sulphate in the area west of the limit indicated 
by A' A' in Plate II (in pocket). The quantity of the radicle is 
usually less in the northern part than in the broad plains south of 
Newman, where arid conditions of water supply are more nearly 
approached. A decrease from west to east in the quantity of sulphate 
is noticeable in most of the western area, but there are many excep- 
tions to this relation, and it is not nearly so striking as the abrupt 
change that occurs between the limits indicated by lines A'A' and 
C'C (PL II). Wells more than 200 feet deep east of the limit 
indicated by C'C yield water containing not more than 10 to 20 
parts per million of sulphate and usually not more than 5 parts. 
Wells 200 to 1,000 feet deep were tested all over the eastern part of 
the valley; a well 2,500 feet deep at Stockton, one 1,800 feet deep 
at Corcoran, one 1,400 feet deep near Pixley, and a 1,300-foot well 
near Madera also were tested and none yields water carrying more 
than 10 parts of sulphate. It may be concluded, therefore, that this 
is a general condition applying to the entire eastern area north of 
Kern County. The water of wells less than 200 feet deep in the same 
territory north of Kings River contains practically no sulphate, but 
south of that river in Kings and Tulare counties high sulphate occurs 
in the water of shallow wells for a few miles east of the axis, and then 
abruptly disappear to recur in the water of only a few scattered wells 
between there and the foothills of the Sierra. The four waters that 



CONDITIONS NORTH OF KINGS RIVER, 101 

were found to contain much sulphate far easl of the axis in Tulare 
County are from wells in areas thai have mil been irrigated, and the 
eround around them shows accumulations of white alkali. The 
wells probably penetrate interdelta aroas where alkali sails have been 
deposited l\\ evaporation, and their waters might be improved by 
the leaching effect of irrigation accompanied by drainage. East of 
the boundary indicated by line B'B' (PL II) sulphate does not occur 
in appreciable amount in the water of wells Jess than 200 feet, deep 
except in the few scattered areas of Tulare County. 

The boundary indicated by A'A' parallels San Joaquin River and 
Kings River Slough, lying one-half to G miles west of them from San 
Joaquin Bridge to Tulare Lake. The boundary indicated by C'C' 
runs in the same general direction, passing just west of Stockton, 
Modesto, Livingston, Lemoore, and Angiola. Boundary B'B' lies 
between A'A' and C'C' from Stockton to Lemoore, where it crosses 
C'C, diverging gradually from it and ultimately curving in a broad 
sweep eastward to the foothills. These boundaries do not show the 
exact limits of the areas of sulphate-bearing waters within 2 or 3 miles 
east or west, but in view of the large number of tests it is fairly certain 
that wells 1,200 feet or less in depth west of boundary A'A' yield 
sulphate waters and that wells less than 1,200 feet and probably those 
2,000 or more feet deep east of boundary C'C' yield nonsulphate 
waters. Between these two boundaries, wmich separate the areas of 
typical east-side and west-side waters, lies a strip 3 to 15 miles wide 
in the axis of the valley, where the change in sulphate content occurs. 
North of Kings River the change in the water from wells of the same 
depth along parallels is abrupt, and the farther the wells are from the 
west side of this strip in the axis the deeper they can be bored without 
striking sulphate water. 

CAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCE IX COMPOSITION OF WATER. 

This essential difference in the chemical composition of the ground 
waters is traceable to the structure of the plain. Geologically San 
Joaquin Valley is a deep trough that has been filled to its present 
level by material washed down from the slopes of the mountains 
bounding it, and the chemical characteristics of the filling material 
are essentially those of the rocks from which the material has been 
derived. The rocks of the Sierra are principally granites, and meta- 
morphic igneous slates and schists. These hard, difficultly soluble 
rocks and the sedimentary rocks derived from them that lie along 
the eastern foothills as far south as Madera County and also in Kern 
County have supplied to the valley material that is in turn capable 
of yielding little mineral matter to water percolating through it; 
consequently the areas of east-side debris furnish ground waters 



102 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

notably low in all mineral constituents. On the other hand, the rocks 
of the Coast Range, consisting largely of Cretaceous shales and sand- 
stones and the calcareous gypsiferous shales, sandstones, and clays 
derived from them are much more soluble, and the filling material of 
the west side of the valley is therefore distinctly different from that 
of the east side. The water that passes through the west-side allu- 
vium becomes highly impregnated with mineral matter and consti- 
tutes a distinct type of supply whose essential characteristic is the 
presence of large quantities of sulphate and correspondingly large 
quantities of bases. 

CONTACT ZONE OF SULPHATE AND NONSULPHATE WATERS. 

In order to trace more closely the boundaries of these character- 
istic types of water cross sections have been plotted along the east 
and west lines indicated in Plate II (see cross sections AB to MN, 
inclusive, PL III). The numbers on the cross sections represent 
the amounts of sulphate found in the ground waters. The position 
of the dot near each number in reference to the surface profile cor- 
responds to the depth of the well, and its position in reference to the 
vertical axis corresponds to the distance of the well from the west 
side of the valley, all the cross sections originating at the foothills of 
the Coast Range. Dotted lines aa' indicate the known eastern bound- 
aries of zones of sulphate water and dotted lines bb' the known 
western boundaries of zones of water very low in sulphate. The 
width of the uncertain strip between aa' and bb' obviously differs in 
the several sections according to the available information regarding 
quality. Solid lines cc' indicate in each section the probable junc- 
tion between the zones of sulphate and nonsulphate water, and the 
degree of uncertainty of its location is clearly indicated by its relation 
to the other lines. The upper end of boundary cc' is located on the 
west side of the present beds of the axial watercourses in all the 
sections except IJ and MN, though the uncertain strip is 2 to 10 miles 
wide at the surface except in section MN. This apparently empirical 
location of the boundary is explainable by the fact that local informa- 
tion indicates the sulphate or nonsulphate character of the water 
near the surface in many places where tests could not be made. No 
analyses of water along the location of section AB are available on 
the west side nearer the river than Banta, but the poor quality of 
two waters less than 2 miles west of the river was evident from their 
taste. In section CD, aa' is very near the location of the river, and 
east of Newman and Los Banos and at Mendota (sections EF, GH, and 
KL) shallow borings, when they contain water, are currently reported 
to yield highly mineralized supplies. Therefore it is probable that 
cc' should have about the surface location indicated. The abrupt 
change in character of the waters is not absolutely demonstrated for 



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, S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 398 




~~""~~"~"^^ River -TTTTTTTTTT/ffiZff 


^~-~ -_ __i SU >,a,l, 


■/'; ■> V« '" J^V 


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SECTION p-S 







0-T 

Ground water having Ground water having Trace of sulphate 
high sulphate lowsulphatt 






m 



Location ofbottom of well. 

Number reprc^oni.- oiiiphai- ■ '.Silent of its water 

Eastern IrtTiitofgrounTwatVlinownlo contain much sulphate 

/estern limitofgroundwafe?VioWto~cohtain very little sulptiJtt; 
Probable junction of waters high and low in sulphate 



CROSS SECTIONS SHOWING SULPHATE CONTENT OF GROUND WATERS IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



CONDITIONS NORTH OF KINGS RIVER. 103 

the entire distance from San Joaquin Bridge to Bangs River, but 
thai the transition is effected very quickly in some regions is shown 
by the data in sections LI and MN, in which the sulphate content 
of the ground waters drops from 100 to 500 parts per million down 
to practically nothing within 2 or 3 miles. 

In all the sections cc' dips eastward; that position is clearly estab- 
lished in sections EF, KL, and MN, and comparison of data for wells 
near the other sections but not included in them shows the proba- 
bility of a generally similar dip everywhere between San Joaquin 
Bridge and Kings River. The dip of cc' explains why some shallow 
wells near the axis yield better water than deep ones. For example, 
wells of any depth less than 600 feet in Newman (see section EF, PL III) 
yield water high in sulphate; in Stevinson Colony, a few miles farther 
east, however, water from wells less than 80 feet deep contains almost 
no sulphate, but water from wells exceeding 250 feet in depth is as 
high in sulphate as that in Newman, and a well in Livingston or east 
of that city could probably be drilled to any depth without striking 
sulphate water. 

RELATION BETWEEN THE CHARACTER OF THE WATERS AND THE 
ORIGIN OF THE SILTS. 

What relation the boundary between these types of water bears 
to the junction of the east and west encroachments of silt deposited 
during the filling of the valley is a geologic problem that need not 
be extensively considered. It is significant that the present bed of 
the river, the lowest part of the land surface, coincides so nearly 
with the surface boundary between the types of ground water. As 
silts that are now transported to the axis from both sides of the 
valley are sharply divided from each other by being diverted to a 
northerly course at the river ground waters moving toward the 
axis — at least those near the surface — would be differentiated in 
chemical composition because the sediments through which they 
are passing are derived from rocks of different character. Such 
waters can not mingle to any great extent both because of their 
being balanced by hydrostatic pressure and because of their diver- 
sion underground to follow the northerly course of the river. Con- 
sequently it is reasonable to conclude that the bed of the river 
always has been the junction line of the two apposed influxes of 
debris and that the line of demarcation between the types of water 
represents successive positions of the river channel during the up- 
building of the valley. Such supposition readily explains the com- 
paratively sharp change in the character of the waters, a condition 
that would not exist if the east-side waters had pushed westward 
into the west-side sediments or if the west-side waters had entered 
the east-side sediments. The westward migration of the bed of the 



104 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

stream is caused by the greater proportion of silt contributed by 
the east-side streams because of their greater discharge and the 
more rapid upheaval of the Sierra. 

The only well on the west side found to contain very little sul- 
phate is 2,250 feet deep and in sec. 14, T. 18 S., R. 18 E., midway 
between the locations of cross sections MN and OP and about 3 
miles west of Kings River Slough. This apparent lack of sulphate 
in the waters of the deep sediments on the west side indicates the 
presence of sediments like those of the east side below the typical 
material of the west side, but as no other well approaching this one 
in depth could be found, this single test does not furnish sufficient 
evidence for definite conclusions. 

CONDITIONS AROUND TULARE LAKE. 
CONTACT ZONE OF SULPHATE AND NONSULPHATE WATERS. 

The relations between the east-side and west-side types of ground 
water change materially near the outlet of Kings River. Shallow 
wells bordering the north and east shores of Tulare Lake yield 
water high in sulphate and other constituents, but deep wells in 
the same area yield water exceptionally low in all constituents, 
including sulphate. The reason for this apparently confused con- 
dition can be made clear by consideration of the cross sections 
depicted in Plate III and figure 3. The section indicated by OP 
(PI. Ill) starts at the foot of the hills west of Huron, crosses Kings 
River Slough southwest of Lemoore, and passes through Hanford. 
The sections indicated by QR, QS, and QT have their origin at 
a common point in T. 21 S., R. 18 E., and radiate across the basin 
of Tulare Lake, passing, respectively, south of Stratford, through 
Tulare, and north of Angiola. lines aa', bb', and cc' represent, 
respectively, the known eastern boundary of sulphate water, the 
known western boundary of nonsulphate water, and the probable 
contact between those two types of water. 

The relations between aa', bb', and cc' in sections OP-QT indicate 
that the overlapping of the zone of sulphate-bearing waters is due to 
saline material that has been deposited in the lake bed during suc- 
cessive evaporations of the lake water. Kern, Kaweah, and other 
rivers now regularly or intermittently tributary to Tulare Lake 
formerly discharged their waters north toward San Joaquin River, 
but the outpushing delta of Kings River, gradually cutting off the 
higher end of the valley, formed the basin of Tulare Lake and altered 
the river courses. Shallow Tulare Lake, which fluctuates greatly 
in area, has been completely dry within recent years, and undoubt- 
edly similar periods of low water and dryness have been often included 
in the history of the lake since its formation. After the water has 



CONDTTTONS AROUND TULABB I kKE. 



105 



been removed by evaporation the mineral substances thus left, behind 
have strongly impregnated the bed with sails, which Later influxes 
of silt have partly covered and protected from resolution. Thus as 
the valley has boon built up the Lake basin has been Oiled with alter- 




.Setmtropic 



; Tnlare Lahe Stratford . 




SECTION U-V 




SECTION Y-Z 

10 15 



Ground water having Ground water having Trace of sulphate Ground water of Location of bottom of well, 
high sulphate very little sulphate uncertain quality Number represents sulphate 

content of its water 



Lower limit of ground water Upper limit of ground water Probable upper limit of groundwater 

known to contain muchsulphate known to contain very little sulphate containing very little sulphate 



Figure 2.— Longitudinal sections showing sulphate content of ground water in the vicinity of Tulare Lake. 

nating or mixed layers of silt and saline deposits that now yield highly 
mineralized waters to wells entering them. Wells that pass com- 
pletely through the old lake beds on the east side reach sediments 
capable of furnishing excellent supplies because they are unmixed 
with the saline deposits. Therefore aa' in sections OP-QT marks 



106 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

not only the known east boundary of the zone of sulphate water, but 
also the known boundary of the zone of saline impregnation, while 
cc' shows the probable boundary between the east-side and west-side 
types of water for part of its length and the boundary between the 
east-side and the superimposed "lake residue" waters for the re- 
mainder. The correct position of dd', indicating the probable 
western boundary of the lake deposits, is highly uncertain, but the 
eastern boundary of the zone affected by the lake residues is fairly 
well fixed by the results of tests of water from shallow wells. It runs 
southeast from Lemoore (see B'B', PL II) to Corcoran, thence to 
Angiola, beyond which its location is not well defined. One well 40 
feet deep east of B'B' in sec. 1, T. 19 S., R. 21 E., yields water con- 
taining 65 parts per million of sulphate, but this doubtless enters a 
small isolated tract of alkali. 

The distribution of sulphate in the waters under the basin of the 
take is portrayed also by longitudinal sections UV to YZ in figure 2, 
the locations of which are indicated in Plate II. The known 
boundaries of zones of sulphate and nonsulphate waters are indicated 
by aa' and bb' as in Plate III except that in the longitudinal sections 
the boundaries mark north and south instead of east and west limits. 
The " uncertain area" in the section across the east side of the present 
lake from Semitropic to Stratford (section UV) is necessarily extensive 
because so few ground waters were available for examination. In 
the same section cc' indicates the probable contact of sulphate and 
nonsulphate waters at the north end of the lake, but no similar 
boundary can be located at the south end, for the only water that 
could be tested between the lake and Semitropic was taken from a 
20-foot dug well and contained 1,130 parts per million of sulphate. 
More abundant data in section WX, 8 miles east of and parallel to 
UV, permit location of the contact (cc') with fair degree of proba- 
bility at an average depth of 170 feet. In the section represented 
by YZ, 3 miles east of and parallel to WX, the influence of the lacus- 
trine deposits does not appear. The sulphate water in one well near 
Hanford probably comes from a small spot of alkali. The shallow 
wells in the southern part of this section are affected by the sediments 
of different character in Kern County. 

TOTAL MINERAL CONTENT OF WATERS. 

Additional evidence that the highly mineralized condition of the 
aquifers under the lake is caused by saline residues is afforded by the 
results of other tests besides those for sulphate. All excessive 
amounts of chloride and bicarbonate in ground waters near the lake 
were found either west of or almost exactly in the position indicated 
by bb' (PL III), a fact indicating that bb' represents the eastern limit 
of the zone of highly mineralized waters and also indicating concen- 



CONDITIONS ABOUND CULABE LAKE. 



107 




SECTION Q-T 

5 10 15 



Ground waters contain less 

than400 parts per million 

of total solids 



Location of bottom of well. 
Number represents total 
- solids of its water 



o. —a' t Eastern limit of ground water known to contain much sulphate 

b — b' Western limit of ground water Known to containvery little sulphate 

c —c' Probable junction of waters high and low in sulphate 

d ^'Probable western limitof water impregnated with mineral matter 

by deposits inthe basin of Tulare Lake 



Figure 3.— Cross sections showing mineral content of ground water in the vicinity of Tulare Lake. 



108 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

tration and deposition from highly saline solutions as the causes of 
the impregnation of the shallow waters with mineral matter. 

The relation of the total mineral content of the waters to the 
probable boundaries of the old lake basin is graphically summarized 
in figure 3. The boundaries aa', bb', cc', and dd' in these four 
sections are those shown in Plate III, but the figures give the calculated 
total mineral content of the waters. All waters from the alluvium 
above the boundary indicated by dd'c are high in mineral content 
and waters from wells west of the lake are, of course, also high for 
the west side is normally a region of high mineral content. The bot- 
toms of five wells yielding water containing more than 400 parts of 
total solids are in the boundary indicated by bb' (fig. 3), but no 
well whose water exceeded that amount was found in the eastern 
part of the area. 

THICKNESS OF THE LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS. 

The maximum thickness of the lacustrine deposits is not entirely 
established because of the limited range of depth of wells that could 
be tested and because of uncertainty whether the high mineral 
content of wells near the middle of the basin is due to mineralization 
by typical west-side alluvium or by lake deposits. Along boundary 
B'B' (PL II) the thickness is not more than 8 or 10 feet. Southwest 
of Lemoore the water of a well 375 feet deep (section OP, PI. Ill) con- 
tains 121 parts of sulphate, and the water of a well 386 feet deep near 
Stratford (section QR, PL III) contains 381 parts of sulphate, but that 
of an 850-foot well as near the slough and 3 miles farther north yields 
water containing only 10 parts per million of sulphate. The water 
of a 95-foot well (section QS, PL III) in sec. 25, T. 20 S., R. 21 E., con- 
tains 127 parts of sulphate, and that of a 400-foot well near by prac- 
tically none; the water of a 102-foot well in sec. 23, T. 22 S., R. 22 E. 
(section QT, PL III), contains 1,640 parts, and that of a 216-foot well 
in the next section practically none. It may be concluded that 
the maximum thickness of the lacustrine deposits is certainly not 
less than 100 feet nor greater than 850 feet and probably about 400 
feet and that the thickness is much less near the edges of the basin. 
Boundaries cc' and dd' have been located in sections OP to QT 
inclusive (PL III) in accordance with these conclusions. 

PROPER DEPTH OF WELLS NEAR TULARE LAKE. 

Plate IV shows the depths to which wells near Tulare Lake should 
be sunk in order to strike water of good quality. The purple con- 
tour lines, indicating the depth in feet below which waters containing 
sulphate or excessive amounts of other mineral constituents will 
probably not be encountered, have been located in accordance 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
iEORGE OTIS SMITH. DIRECTOR 



WATER-SUPPLY I'Af'l M 




MAP OF TULARE LAKE AND VICINITY, CALIFORNIA 

Showing depth to which sulphate water may be obtained 
and location of wells from which water was tested 
5 5 10 Miles 



1915 
LEGEND 



-i% 



ao°' 



Location of well from which water Line west of which ground waters Contours indicating depth in feet 

was tested. Black number indi- contain large amounts of sulphate below which sulphate waters will 

cates depth in feet; purple number (Reproduced from Plate II) probably not be encountered 

indicates sulphate content of water ( Wells should be bored 50 to 100 

in parts per million. T signifies feet deeper to assure good water) 
trace of sulphate 



CONDITIONS SOUTH OF TULARE LAKE. 1() ( .) 

with the data in sections OP to YZ, inclusive of Plate III and figures 
2 and 3. Dependence lias aecessarily been placed in the reported 

depths of wells. Boundary A' A' corresponds to boundary A'A' 
Indicated in Plate 1 1. 

For safety wells should be sunk 50 to 100 feet deeper than the 
depths indicated by the contours, and as practically all the water 
in the upper strata is highly impregnated with mineral matter the 
casings should be tight down to the good water. Though it is not 
known how far west of the location of the 500-foot contour wells 
can be drilled without encountering sulphate water, line A'A' rep- 
resents the extreme western limit of nonsulphate water at all depths, 
and the safe limit even for deep wells is probably not beyond the 
middle of the lake, the shore of which in 1910 is shown by a dotted 
line located from personal observation and local report without 
instrumental data. Within the area near Tulare Lake designated 
as yielding nonsulphate water spots may be found where supplies 
of poor quality may be afforded by deep wells, but such spots will 
be small. Information regarding the quality of ground waters 
immediately south of Alpaugh is scanty. 

CONDITIONS SOUTH OF TULARE LAKE. 

Data on the quality of ground water in Kern County are restricted 
to so few areas that conclusions can be formed only in respect to 
local characteristics, the analyses being discussed in more detail on 
pages 292-294. The water of wells 200 to 1,000 feet deep at Pond, 
Semitropic, Buttomvillow, and Oil Center contains little sulphate, 
but the deep water in the basin of Kern Lake contains some, and 
nearly all ground water southeast of Bakersfield to a depth of at 
least 300 feet seems to contain much sulphate. A well 686 feet 
deep 6 miles west of Buttonwillow, whose water carries 49 parts 
per million of sulphate, may mark the eastern boundary of the 
west-side type of water. Contrary to conditions farther north, 
many shallow waters in the east part of the valley in Kern County 
are rather high in sulphate and other substances. This high mineral 
content may be due to the influence of the Pliocene and Miocene 
sediments at the base of the Sierra, which in Kern County are 
different in texture and composition from those north of Madera 
County. 

Cretaceous rocks are plentiful and the ground waters are notori- 
ously bad in the foothills south of the basin of Kern Lake. There- 
fore, the high sulphate content of ground water in the adjacent 
portions of the valley is probably caused by the character of the 
silt washed down from the hills as well as by concentration similar 
to that which has occurred in the basin of Tulare Lake. The data 



110 



GKOUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



in section D'E' (fig. 4) indicates a gradual increase of mineral con- 
tent of the ground water from north to south across the basin of 
Kern Lake, the bed of which is now dry and under cultivation. 
The deep waters under the lake bed contain measurable quantities 
of sulphate, but none is particularly high in dissolved solids, and all 
are greatly superior to the shallow waters around Tulare Lake. 
This more favorable condition is explained by the fact that the 
Kern basin has not been landlocked so long as that of Tulare Lake. 



KernRiver/ 
BaKersfieiaj^288 



Bt> 1507-220— 175^M 70 i IS T 16 ? 

30 S & ±3 'V 



Sea level 



115 
300 



44*> 



210 
34- 



Location of bottom of well. 

Upper number represents 

total mineral content and 

lower number sulphate 

content of its water 



Trace of sulphate 



Figure 4.— Section D'E', showing content of sulphate and total mineral matter of ground waters in the 

basin of Kern Lake. 

COMPOSITION AND QUALITY OF EAST-SIDE WATERS. 

Ground waters distinctly of the east-side type occur east of the 
boundaries indicated by B'B' and C'C in Plate II (in pocket), and 
the location and significance of these boundaries have been dis- 
cussed (pp. 100-104). Wells less than 1,100 feet deep in the east side 
north of Kern County yield waters much alike in total mineral con- 
tent and in composition. These waters are the best ground supplies 
in the valley, being usually acceptable for all purposes and belonging 
almost exclusively to the calcium carbonate class 1 typical of humid 
and semihumid regions. On the east side near the axis sodium 
carbonate and some sodium chloride waters are found, but sulphate 
waters are found only in a few widely separated tracts in Tulare 
County. The averages in Table 22 show the characteristics of the 
east-side waters and their similaritv to each other. 



1 For the explanation of this and similar terms defining the character of water see p. 80. 



COMPOSITION \M> QUALITY OF EAST-BIDE WATERS. Ill 

Table 22. Average chemical composition and Quality of water from wells 10 to 1,100 feet 
deep east of the boundaries indicated oy />"/>" and <"(" in Plate If. 

I raits p'.>r million exoepl as otherwise designated.] 



Number of analyses 

Carbonate radicle (COa) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCOs). 

Sulphate radicle (SO<) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Sodium and potassium 
(Na+Kl 

Total hardness as CaCOg... . 

Total solids 

Alkali coefficient (k) (inches) 

S e a 1 e - f o r m i n g constit- 
uents (s) 

Foaming constituents (f) . . . 



San 
Joa- 
quin 
Coun- 
ty. 



10 



id) 

5 

35 

35 
140 
280 

50 

180 
LOO 



Btanls- 

laus 

Coun- 



Merced Madera 

Conn- i Coun- 
ty, ly. 







21 


26 








160 


140 


Tr. 


Tr. 


50 


25 


35 


30 


140 


100 


310 


210 


60 


60 


190 


140 


90 


80 



20 



125 

4 

40 

20 
120 
220 

60 

160 
CO 



Fresno 

coun- 
ty. 



:;i 



135 



20 



TO 

210 

70 

130 

80 



Tulare 

Coun- 
ty. 



67 

Tr. 

140 

8 

35 

40 
100 
240 

40 

140 
110 



Aver- 
age. 



a 208 


140 

4 

35 

30 
110 
240 

60 

160 
90 



Limits of indi- 
\ [dual deter- 
mination . 



High- 
est. 



18 
344 

202 
490 

500 

500 

1,500 

400 

460 

1,000 



Low- 
est. 



(I 

35 

Tr. 

4 

4 

4 

50 

4 

40 




a Total. 



The averages, which have been computed from the results of the 
assays, are arranged in geographic order from north to south, and 
they are graphically represented in Plate V (p. 120) . Tests were made 
for carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, chloride, and total hardness, 
and the other quantities are computed from the results of those tests. 
The mean of 208 analyses represents a water moderate in total solids, 
fairly hard, and without distinct taste due to mineral matter, and 
therefore unobjectionable from a chemical standpoint for domestic 
use; such water would be fair for boiler use, as it contains only a 
moderate amount of scale-forming matter and little foaming matter; 
and it would be entirely acceptable for irrigation. The averages by 
counties represent waters of the same type, for the differences in some 
of the constituents are not great enough to have particular signifi- 
cance. The apparent tendency toward decrease southward in hard- 
ness and bicarbonate may be explained by the decrease in rainfall, 
which results in a decrease in the quantity of carbon dioxide supplied 
by decaying vegetation. The last two columns of Table 22 show 
that local fluctuations in quality are far greater than the differences 
in the county averages, and they indicate that there is considerable 
latitude for selection when supplies of lowest mineral content are 
necessary. The fluctuations are much greater in Tulare County 
than in any other part of the region. Altogether the waters of 
wells less than 1,100 feet deep are more nearly uniform in quality 
throughout the east side than in any other part of the valley. 



112 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



Table 23. — Chemical composition of water from wells more than 1,100 feet deep 
the boundaries indicated by B / B / and C'C in Plate II. 

[Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] 



Of 



Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) 

Chlorine(Cl) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) a. 

Total hardness as CaC03 

Total solidsa 

Depth of wells (feet) 



San Joaquin 
County. 





110 

5 

2,900 

1,300 

1,650 

5,900 

1,200 to 2, 500 



Madera 


Fresno 


County. 


County. 





Tr. 


137 


417 


Tr. 


Tr. 


1,160 


135 


485 


240 


776 


47 


2,000 


610 


1,310 


1,200 



Tulare 
County. 



18 

6S 

5 

15 

50 

8 

170 

1,400 



a Computed. 

East-side wells more than 1,100 feet deep yield water entirely differ- 
ent in composition from that of shallower wells. Four wells, 1,200 to 
2,500 feet deep, in San Joaquin County yield salt water unfit for use. 
(See Table 23.) The 1,310-foot well near Madera supplies salt water 
much lower in mineral content than that from the deep wells in San 
Joaquin County. The 1,200-foot well east of Wheatville, Fresno 
County, yields water much lower in chloride and all other constitu- 
ents, but carbonate is so high that the water is poor for irrigation. 
The supply of the 1,400-foot well in T. 22 S., R. 24 E., represents con- 
ditions in Tulare County, where some of the best waters are struck 
at depths greater than 1,100 feet. This sodium carbonate water is 
low in mineral content and fairly acceptable for boiler supply and for 
irrigation. It is important to note that neither this well nor those 
as deep as 2,000 feet near Tulare Lake encounter salt water, as do 
wells of similar depth near Stockton. 

COMPOSITION AND QUALITY OF WEST-SIDE WATERS. 



GENERAL CHARACTER. 

Typical west-side ground waters occur west of the boundary in- 
dicated by A'A' in Plate II (in pocket). They are not so uniform 
in mineral content as the waters of the east side, but they are much 
higher in mineral content, and they are characterized by high per- 
centages of sulphate. Calcium sulphate or gypsum waters occur 
generally near the foothills of the Coast Range, and sodium sulphate 
waters near the axis of the valley. The west-side supplies as a class 
are so highly mineralized that they are very hard and are unsuitable 
for boiler use without purification. Nearly all of them have a dis- 
tinct " alkali" taste and many are unpalatable. Fortunately, how- 
ever, the sulphate nature of the dissolved matter makes it relatively 
less harmful to crops, and comparatively few supplies are absolutely 
unfit for irrigating lands. 



COMPOSITION AND Ql'AI.ITY OF WEST-SIDE WATERS. 



1 1 3 



QUALITY IN RELATION TO GEOGRAPHIC POSITION. 

The quality of the west-side ground waters differs so much from 
place to place that no more definite description of the waters as a 
class can bo given than that In the preceding paragraph. The region 
has, therefore, been roughly divided into districts, in which the sup- 
plies are more or less comparable with each other, for, unlike the wa- 
ters of the east side, the waters of the west side arc dependent in 
quality more on geographic position than on depth. The averages of 
analyses of water in each district, presented in Table 24, indicate ap- 
proximately the character of the west-side supplies and the differ- 
ences to which they are subject. The last column, giving the average 
quality of ground waters on the east side of the valley, has been added 
for comparison. The total mineral content of water in each district 
is graphically represented in Plate V (p. 120). 

Table 24. — Average chemical composition and quality of ground waters west of the 
boundary indicated by A' A' in Plate II. 

[ Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] 



Number of analyses 

Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Total hardness as CaC0 3 

Total solids a 

Alkali coefficient (k) (inches) a. . 
Scale-forming constituents (s) a. 
Foaming constituents (f) a 



San Joa- 
quin 

County 
near' 

foothills. 



Tr. 
180 
690 
300 
340 
620 
1,800 
4 
650 
900 



San Joa- 
quin 

County 

between 
Tracy and 

San Joa- 
quin River. 



Stanislaus 
County. 



15 

Tr. 
190 
200 
75 
50 
280 
6-tO 
30 
310 
230 



21 
Tr. 
220 
220 
300 
130 
400 
930 

21 
420 
340 



Merced 
County 

northwest 
of 

Los Banos. 



14 

Tr. 

240 

70 

60 

50 

250 

510 

40 

300 

150 



Merced 
County 

southeast 
of 

Los Banos. 



9 
Tr. 
180 
330 
440 
360 
380 
1,530 

6 
410 



Fresno 
County 

northwest 
of 

Mendota. 



Fresno 


Fresno 




County 


County 


Kings 
County. 


near foot- 
hills south 


near slough 
south of 


of Mendota. 


Mendota. 




7 


10 


3 








Tr. 


145 


250 


70 


1,160 


420 


290 


130 


70 


50 


240 


240 


110 


1,040 


250 


170 


2,100 


1,030 


610 


12 


20 


25 


840 


280 


240 


640 


660 


310 



Average 

quality of 

east-side 

waters. 



Number of analyses 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) a 

Total hardness as CaC03 

Total solids a 

Alkali coefficient, (k) (inches) a... 
Scale-forming constituents (s) a . . . 
Foaming constituents (f) a 



Tr. 
150 

1,140 
220 
350 
900 

2,300 

9 

950 

900 




140 
4 
35 
30 
110 
240 
60 
160 



a Computed. 

The waters of five wells, 46 to 268 feet deep, in San Joaquin County 
between Tracy and the western foothills belong to the sodium 
sulphate class, and they carry 900 to 2,500 parts per million of min- 
98205°— wsp 398—16 8 



114 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

eral matter, 250 to 960 parts of which is sulphate. They are poor 
for irrigation and too high in scale-forming and foaming constituents 
to be fit for boiler use. 

Alkalies predominate in some of the 1 5 waters from widely scattered 
wells 20 to 400 feet deep in the same county south and east of Tracy 
and west of San Joaquin River, but most of the waters belong to the 
calcium sulphate class. All would be considered poor for boilers 
because they would form large quantities of hard scale and would 
cause foaming. They are better than the waters near the foothills, 
however, and they are low enough in mineral matter to be suitable 
for irrigation. Depth bears no apparent relation to quality, except 
that in certain sections the shallow supplies are somewhat worse than 
the deep ones. 

The part of Stanislaus County between San Joaquin River and the 
western foothills is narrower than the rest of the west side, and con- 
sequently the normal ground water there is affected by mixture with 
the more highly mineralized water that is slowly percolating north- 
ward from farther south in the valley. The 21 supplies that were 
tested in western Stanislaus County differ greatly from each other in 
composition, ranging from the calcium sulphate to the sodium chloride 
type. The artesian waters near San Joaquin River, like those in 
Stevinson colony across the river, are salty, rather poor for irrigation, 
and capable of foaming in boilers. Wells 20 to 200 feet deep through- 
out the region yield supplies containing chlorine in amounts ranging 
from 15 to 300 parts without apparent regularity. Most of the waters 
could be used for irrigation, but none is good for boiler use because 
of the high content of scale-forming and other ingredients. 

Conditions in Merced County are similarly complex and irregular. 
West and north of and including Los Banos 14 wells, 23 to 580 feet 
deep, yield better water than wells southeast of that city. Sulphate 
is lower than in other parts of the west side and chloride likewise is 
moderate, but both radicles are always present in appreciable amount. 
The waters generally can be used for irrigation without causing 
trouble by their mineral content, but they need to be softened before 
being used in boilers. Waters from different depths show irregular 
local differences of quality. 

The ground supplies southeast of Los Banos are poorer than those 
northwest of that city, and resemble those of northwestern Fresno 
County. They are strong sodium sulphate and sodium chloride 
waters that range from fair to very poor for irrigation. Their con- 
tents of foaming and scale-forming ingredients are so great that they 
are poor for boiler use, and some of them are industrially useless. A 
few shallow wells near irrigation ditches yield water better than the 
average. 



COMPOSITION AND QUALITY OF WEST-SIDE WATERS. 11;*) 

The broad flat west side of Fresno County, at present occupied by 
sheep ranches and a few isolated farms, did not afford much oppor- 
tunity for investigation, but the results of the tests that could be 
made make it apparent that this region yields the hardest and most 
strongly mineralized ground waters in the west side of San Joaquin 
Valley. Most of the wells near San Joaquin River and Kings River 
Slough yield sodium sulphate waters lower in mineral content than 
those farther west. Ten waters from wells thus situated and 20 to 
1,100 feet deep contained 600 to 1,700 parts per million of total 
solids. All would be likely to foam in boilers and could be distinctly 
i ni]) roved by being purified before use. Most of them could be ap- 
plied in irrigation under proper conditions of drainage to prevent al- 
kali accumulation. 

The waters farther west in Fresno County are very high hi sul- 
phate and alkaline earths; that is, they are gypsum waters. Though 
this makes their content of incrustants so high that they are very 
bad for boiler use, it does not influence to so great extent their value 
for irrigation, and many of them could irrigate crops if proper precau- 
tions for drainage were taken. Few shallow wells on the plains yield 
water, wells usually being 100 to 700 feet deep, and it is improbable 
that any better water would be encountered by boring deeper. A 
well 2,250 feet deep yields sodium chloride water high in carbonate 
and very poor for irrigation or for boilers. The great quantity of 
gas in it makes it likewise unpalatable. 

Three wells, 170 to 285 feet deep, west of Tulare Lake, in Kings 
County, were tested, one near the present shore of the lake and two 
about 5 miles from it. These waters contain considerably less dis- 
solved constituents than the west-side waters of Fresno County, and 
they could be considered suitable for irrigation. They are high in 
sulphate, however, and the one farthest from the lake is a strong 
gypsum water. 

Field work in the region south of Tulare Lake was not carried far 
enough west to make it certain that the true character of the ground 
waters in that part was discovered. A 20-foot dug well in sec. 1 ( ?), 
T. 24 S., R. 21 E., yields strong water high in sulphate, because it 
comes from the mineralized silt in the basin of Tulare Lake. No wells 
between that section and Semitropic could be sampled, but wells at 
the latter place yield water low in sulphate. Deep waters at But- 
tonwLTow are low in sulphate, but those from wells 40 to 100 feet 
deep are high in sulphate, yet do not have the very high mineral con- 
tent that is characteristic of ground waters in western Fresno County. 
Future investigation north and south of Lost Hills will probably 
show that the west-side belt of waters high in sulphate extends south- 
ward into Kern County, and that it terminates at its eastern boun- 
dary as abruptly there as in the counties farther north. 



116 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



DEPOSITION OF CALCIUM SULPHATE. 

The figures in Table 24 (p. 113) indicate that in general the ground 
waters near the western foothills are calcium sulphate waters and 
that those farther east are sodium sulphate waters, the former con- 
taining much more mineral matter than the latter. This highly 
interesting alteration in the ground supplies that flow from the foot- 
hills of the Coast Range toward the axis of the valley evidently is 
the result of deposition of gypsum while the waters are passing 
through the ground. This phenomenon can be made clearer by 
means of the data in Table 25. 

Table 25. — The deposition of calcium sulphate from west-side waters. 
[Parts per million.] 



Constituents. 



Fresno County, 
southern part. 



Fresno County, 
northern part. 



C. 



Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine(Cl) 

Total hardness as CaS04. . . 

Alkalies (computed) 

Total solids (computed) — 



145 
1,160 

130 
1,410 

240 
2,100 



250 
420 
70 
340 
240 
,030 



140 
1,720 

140 
1,900 

360 
3,000 



184 
470 
400 
270 
470 
1,700 



Column A gives the average of analyses of water from 7 wells 
80 to 400 feet deep near the foothills southwest of Mendota in Fresno 
County and column B a similar average for 10 wells 20 to 1,100 feet 
deep in a strip east of the 7 wells but west of Kings River Slough. 
These averages indicate that during the eastward passage of the 
water carbonate increases at the expense of the chloride and the 
alkalies remain unchanged. The decrease in total solids, 1,070 parts, 
is equivalent to the decrease in total hardness expressed as calcium 
sulphate; furthermore, the decrease in sulphate, 740 parts, is equiva- 
lent to 1,050 parts of calcium sulphate, or almost exactly the decrease 
in total solids. These striking relations make it evident that gypsum 
is being deposited from the ground waters; for if the change were one 
of simple dilution other constituents would be proportionately de- 
creased, and if the alteration in character were caused by reaction 
between alkali salts in the silt and the calcium salts dissolved in the 
waters sulphate would not be decreased and the alkalies would be 
greatly increased. The figures in columns C and D afford a similar 
comparison of waters from wells in the northwestern part of Fresno 
County, column C giving the average of analyses of water from four 
wells 200 to 280 feet deep far out on the plains and column D giving 
the mean of analyses of water from two wells 437 and 532 feet deep 
near San Joaquin River. The decrease in sulphate, equivalent to 
1,700 parts per million of calcium sulphate, is not completely equaled 



COMPOSITION WD QUALITX OF AXIAL WATKHS. 117 

by the change o( 1,630 in total hardness as calcium sulphate and of 
1,300 in total solids, but these alterations are all of such magnitude 
in comparison with other changes that they lead to the conclusion 

that calcium sulphate is being deposited. North of Fresno County 
ground waters near San Joaquin River are affected in mineral content 
by seepage from the south and consequently any similar deposition 
that may occur there is effectually concealed. 

COMPOSITION AND QUALITY OF AXIAL WATERS. 
IRREGULARITY OF COMPOSITION. 

The region of ground waters of the axial type can not be bounded 
so definitely as those of waters of the east-side and west-side types. 
It is included within the artesian area and it covers the territory be- 
tween the boundaries indicated by A'A' and C'C in Plate II (in 
pocket) overlapping on both sides and gradually merging into the 
areas in which other types predominate. As the axis of the valley 
or the lowest part of its trough receives the drainage of the valley 
ground waters there contain the highest proportion of the most 
readily soluble substances, the alkalies. On the west side sodium 
and potassium are left predominant among the bases after calcium 
sulphate has been removed from the ground water. On the east 
side the moderately mineralized calcium carbonate waters are 
strengthened by solution of alkali salts from the silts through which 
they slowly seep on their way from the foothills to the axis, and they 
are undoubtedly altered by drainage from irrigated lands. Carbo- 
nate is predominant on the east and sulphate on the west side of the 
axial belt, and both radicles are overshadowed by chloride in several 
localities. In general, the higher sodium content of waters from 
wells in the axis makes them less desirable for irrigation than that 
from wells on either side of the valley, and the same characteristic 
makes them more likely to foam when they are used for steaming. 

The most noticeable feature of the axial waters is their wide range 
of concentration and composition, which is indicated in Plate V by 
graphic representation of the mineral content of water from wells 
of various depths in many localities. Nearly all wells in the axis 
near Tulare Lake yield sodium carbonate water, the deep supplies 
being much lower in mineral content than the shallower ones. Along 
Kings River Slough the mineral content of the ground waters is in- 
creased by the strong waters entering from the west side, and this 
influence continues northward for some distance along San Joaquin 
River. 

CHLORIDE CONTENT OF ARTESIAN WATER. 

Many deep wells along the axis north of Kings River yield brackish 
water, while wells away from the axis but just as deep and in the 



118 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



same latitude do not; this indicates the existence of local saline de- 
posits in the moderately deep silts and the downward percolation of 
water charged with the soluble constituents of the silts. Very deep 
wells invariably yield salt water, a condition that may be explained 
by the broadspread occlusion of saline waters within the deeper 
layers of silt. As this likelihood of striking distasteful salty water, 
harmful in irrigation and corrosive to boilers, is a discouraging feature 
about putting down deep wells into the abundant artesian flow near 
the river, Table 26 has been prepared giving certain data regarding 
artesian waters that were tested between Lemoore and San Joaquin 
Bridge. 



Table 26.- 



-Chloride content of water from artesian wells between San Joaquin Bridge 
and Lemoore. 



Location. 


Depth 
(feet). 


Chlorine 

(CI) 
(parts per 
million). 


Quality for 
irrigation. 


Quality for 


Sec. 


T. 


R. 


boiler use. 








480 
350 
285 
301 
600 
330 
250 
330 
402 

+500 
297 
707 
325 
350 
660 
372 
320 
300 
340 
283 
350 
550 
375 
437 
240 
400 
532 
520 

+300 

1,310 
640 
550 
700 
700 
750 
800 
690 

1,100 
600 

1,200 

1,178 
700 

2,250 


295 

250 

430 

450 

1,060 

320 

2,080 

1,980 

150 

1,520 

10 

30 

10 

139 

372 

445 

35 

25 

20 

25 

25 

1,155 

175 

685 

20 

30 

115 

1,680 

25 

1, 160 

75 

245 

65 

55 

155 

265 

150 

35 

125 

135 

40 

20 

280 


Fair 


Very bad. 
Bad 


Do 






do.... 

Poor 

do 

Bad 


Do 






Do 


26... 


6S 


9 E 


Very bad . 
Do 


31 . 


6S 


10 E 


6.. 


7S 


10 E 


Poor 

Bad 


Do 


25 


7S 


10 E 


Do. 


17 


7S 


HE 


do 

Good 

Bad 


Do. 


13 


9S 


9E 


Bad. 


20 


8S 


HE 


Very bad. 
Fair. 


10 


8S 


12 E 


Fair 


16 


8S 


13 E 


do 

Good 

Fair , 


Do. 


27 


8S 


14E 


Do. 


36 


9S 


10 E 


Bad. 


36 


9S 


10 E 


Poor 

do 

Good 

do 

Fair 


Do. 


14 


10 S 


11 E 


Very bad. 
Fair. 








15 


9S 


13 E 


Do. 


21 


9S 


13 E 


Do. 


6 


10 S 


14E 


Good 

do 

Bad 


Do. 


30 


9S 


15 E 


Do. 


21 


IIS 


12E 


Very bad. 


1 


US... 


12 E 


Fair 




33 


US 


13 E 


Poor 

Good 

do 

Poor 

Bad 


Very bad. 
Fair. 


35 


9S 


14E 


11 


10S 


14E 


Do. 


22 


13S 


14E 


Very bad. 
Do. 


6 


13S 


15 E 


34 


US 


16 E 


Good 

Bad 


Fair. 


32 


US 


18E 


Very bad. 
Bad. 


31 


13S 


15 E 


Fair 


10 


14S 


16E 


do 

Good 

Fair 


Do. 


12 


15S 


16 E 


Do. 


19 


15S 


16E 


Do. 


25 


15S 


17E 


Poor 

do 

do 

Good 

Poor 

do 

Fair 


Do. 


9 


15S 


17E 


Do. 


14 


16S 


17E 


Do. 


8 


17S 


17E 




15 


17S 


18 E 


Bad. 


2 


17S 


18 E 


Do. 


36 


18S 


18E 


Do. 


28 


18S 


20E 


Poor 

do 


Poor. 


14 


18S 


18 E 


Bad. 











Thirteen artesian waters along Kings River Slough and within 6 
miles of that watercourse were tested. (See Table 26.) Among 
these the water from the 2,250-foot well in T. 18 S., R. 18 E., containing 
280 parts of chlorine, is practically useless. The water of a 550-foot 
well at Jamesan and of an 800-foot well south of that station are rather 



INCREASE OF MINERAL CONTENT FROM SOUTH TO Noktii. 119 

high in chlorine. Hie other ten waters, from wells 600 to 1,200 feet 
deep, are moderately low in chlorine and good to poor for irrigation, 
but undesirable for boiler use because of their high contents of foaming 
ingredients. Nearly all the artesian waters from wells less than 1,000 
feet deep east of San Joaquin River and south of Dickersons Ferry are 
low in chlorine and are suitable for common use, but those west of the 
river in the same latitude are much poorer. Water from the 1,310- 
foot well in T. 1 1 S., R. 18 E., is high in chlorine and bad for general 
use. All deep waters around Newman and Stevinson Colony contain 
much chlorine. This condition extends south to Dickersons Ferry 
and north to Crows Landing, and probably no wells in that territory 
more than 300 feet deep will yield really satisfactory water. Water 
from shallow wells in Stevinson Colony is much better than that from 
deep wells. 

No well more than 200 feet deep could be found between Crows 
Landing and Lathrop and therefore the quality of the deep axial 
waters in that area are unknown. The water of the 480-foot well at 
Crows Landing carries 295 parts per million of chlorine and is only 
fair for irrigation. The w T ater of a 1,200-foot well near French Camp, 
just north of Lathrop, contains 1,735 parts of chlorine and is unfit for 
irrigation. Wells more than 1,200 feet deep at Stockton yield salt 
water while those 700 to 1,100 feet deep yield fresh water fair or poor 
for irrigation and shallower wells yield satisfactory fresh water. 

The 1,310-foot well near Madera yields water containing 1,160 parts 
per million of chlorine. Therefore it may be concluded that any well 
more than 1,200 feet deep between Dickersons Ferry and Suisun Bay 
will yield salt water unsuitable for use. As the analyses show that 
the water of wells more than 400 feet deep near the axis between 
Dickersons Ferry and Crows Landing is salty and poor in quality, it 
is reasonable to conclude that wells 400 to 1,200 feet deep near the 
axis between Crows Landing and San Joaquin Bridge wdll also yield 
salty water. A similar conclusion regarding 500 to 1,000-foot wells 10 
miles or more east of the river in Stanislaus and San Joaquin counties 
is, however, unjustifiable by the data at hand. It is possible that 
fresh water may be encountered between those depths as in eastern 
Merced and Madera counties, but no assertion to that effect can be 
made. 

INCREASE OF MINERAL CONTENT FROM SOUTH TO NORTH. 

GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

Structurally, San Joaquin Valley is a trough filled with silt from 
the surrounding mountains. The ground waters, following the gen- 
tle but definite slope, percolate toward the axis and then follow the 
axis northward. They dissolve and retain in solution the more 
readily soluble substances with which they come into contact, and 



120 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

some of thorn deposit part of their load of less soluble constituents. 
Theso conditions lead to belief that the ground water gradually 
increases in mineral content as it progresses northward, or, in other 
words, that analyses of water from wells of equal depth should indi- 
cate an increase of mineral content from south to north. It is the 
purpose of this section to show how far the results of the tests sup- 
port that belief. 

Plate V shows graphically the amount of mineral matter in 
ground waters in different parts of the valley. Averages of analy- 
ses grouped by depth of wells have been used for the east side in order 
that the changes from county to county might be more clearly 
shown, but the results of individual tests have been plotted in the 
axis because the total solids there are so divergent. The only 
feasible grouping of analyses on the west side is by location. The 
length of the blocks indicates the amount of total solids and the 
shading indicates the depth of the wells. For the purposes of this 
diagram it has been convenient to accept the boundaries indicated 
by A 'A' and C'C in Plate II (in pocket) as the limits of the respective 
areas. 

The diagram as a whole shows simply and forcibly the relations 
between location, depth, and mineral content of the ground waters. 
The east-side waters, low in mineral content, are remarkably uniform 
in quality down to a certain depth. The west-side waters are much 
more highly mineralized and are differentiated from each other prin- 
cipally by their distance from the foothills. The axial waters, 
extremely variable in character, are influenced by east-side and 
west-side waters and by soluble constituents in local sediments. 
The relations represented diagrammatically in Plate V explain several 
apparently inconsistent conditions of quality. 

Briefly, the data establish that a progressive increase in the min- 
eral content of the deep-seated underground drainage takes place, 
especially near the axis of the valley. No such relation exists in re- 
spect to the shallow waters, however, even near the median line of the 
trough, where the influence would be most clearly evident. 

DEEP WATERS. 

Analyses of water from wells more than 1,100 feet deep show a 
definite increase in mineral content from south to north proportionate 
to the increase in alkalies and chlorine; that is, the waters become 
more salty toward the outlet of the valley. Wells on the east side 
of Kern, Kings, and Tulare counties from 1,100 to 2,000 feet deep 
yield excellent water averaging about 200 parts per million of total 
solids. The water of the 1,200-foot well in sec. 2, T. 17 S., R. 18 E. 
is moderate in solids and in chlorine; the salty water of the 1,310- 
foot well in sec. 32, T. 11 S., R. 18 E. contains more than three times 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
3,000- 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 398 PLATE V 



1,500- 



500- 



0- 
4,000- 



z 

O 3,500^ 
^ 3,000-H 

H! 

H 25 00- 

S 2,000- 



o 

in 

J 1,500- 



1,000- 



500- 



35 MILES 



Narrow bsrs 
bar 




1ERCED CO 



2,000- 



1,500- 



1,000- 



500- 



-25 MILES 



*10 MILES" 



III 



I 



STAN I SLAU 5 CO SAN JOAQUIN CO 



kn 



n 



J. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 398 PLATE ' 




MINERAL CONTENT OF GROUND WATERS IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



[NCREASE OF \il\i.i;\! CONTENT FROM SOUTH TO NORTH. J 21 

as much tninera] matter; and the waters that were bested from wells 
more than i.ioo teet deep in Sao Joaquin County average 5,200 parts 
per million in mineral content.. These data indicate a decided north- 
ward increase beginning in Fresno County in the mineral content of 
the deep waters, a conclusion that is corroborated by the few available 
tests of deep ground waters in the axis. Tho 2, 250-foot well in sec. 
14, T. IS S., 11. IS E., included among the axial waters, yields poor 
water, and the 1,200-foot well at French Camp furnishes a supply 
comparable with the deep waters at Stockton. 

OCCLUSION OF SEA WATER. 



Though it has been suggested that this increase of solids, represent- 
ing increase of chloride and alkali, is evidence of the occlusion of sea 
water within the deep sediments, the composition of the waters makes 
this improbable. Sea water contains 33,000 to 37,000 parts per mil- 
lion of mmeral matter hi solution, while the water of a 1,786-foot 
well at Stockton contains 4,700 parts, that of a 2,500-foot w T ell at 
Stockton 7,489 parts, and that of the 1,200-foot well at French Camp 
only 3,000 parts. Besides this striking difference in concentration 
the figures in table 27 prove that the composition of the mineral mat- 
ter is also entirely different from that of sea water. The analysis of 
water from the 2,500-foot gas well at Stockton has been selected for 
comparison because it is the strongest water and because as much as 
possible of the upper fresh waters has been excluded. Even if the 
deep water had been diluted through a leaky casing the composition 
of it could not have been so radically changed from that of sea water. 

Table 27. — Comparison of the composition of water from a 2,500-foot well at Stockton 

ivith that of sea water. 

[Percentage of anhydrous residue.] 



Constituents. 



Well.a 



Ocean. & 



Silica (SiOs) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) . 

Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 



Salinity (parts per million). 



0.72 




10. 72 


1.20 


3.24 


3.72 


22.40 


31.70 


.64 


.21 


.00 


7.69 


62.28 


55,29 


7,489 


33, 010 to 37, 370 



a Silica not determined. Estimated for purposes of computation as 50 parts. Analysis-by F. M. Eaton, 
Sept. 19, 1910. 

b Average of analyses by Dittmar; quoted by Clarke, F. W., The data of geochemistry: .IT. S. Geol. Sur- 
vey Bull. 616, p. 123, 1916. Minor ingredients omitted. 

These waters are similar only in that they are both strong solutions 
of sodium chloride. The ratio (1 to 3.3) between the amounts of 
calcium and magnesium in the well water is that of ordinary ground 
water and is the reverse of that in sea water (3.1 to 1). This funda- 
mental difference and the undoubted absence of any appreciable 



122 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

quantity of sulphate in the well waters, whereas the residue of ocean 
water contains nearly 8 per cent of sulphate, makes it entirely im- 
probable that the saline character of the deep-seated supplies is due 
to the retention of ocean water within the valley sediments. It is 
more reasonable to believe that the salt represents an accumulation 
derived from the silts through which the water has very slowly 
passed. 

SHALLOW WATERS. 

Waters from wells 400 to 1,100 feet deep in the axis of the valley 
increase from south to north in mineral content, but on the east side 
waters from wells of similar depth are slightly mineralized and are 
much alike in composition irrespective of their position. Shallower 
waters show great local diversity of composition in the east side and 
in the axis. No regular relation holds for supplies of this class, and 
their quality is predictable only from local tests. 

On the west side local conditions determine the quality of ground 
waters, in which no regular increase of mineral content from south 
to north is apparent. The mineral content of waters on the west 
side is highest in Fresno County, and it decreases northward, rising 
somewhat near the foothills in San Joaquin County. The total solids 
of ground waters near the west shore of Tulare Lake are less than 
those of supplies in Fresno County, but it is unknown whether that 
condition prevails in the west side of Kern County. 

RELATION OF DEPTH TO MINERAL CONTENT. 

It is a fairly prevalent belief that the deeper a well goes the greater 
is the mineral content of its water. Yet a little thought establishes 
the unreasonableness of such general assumption, and a cursory 
review of analytical data is sufficient to prove the fallacy of it. The 
mineral content of a ground water depends primarily on the kind of 
rock with which it comes into contact, and its chemical composition 
at any stage in its progress tells the main facts of its history. Pres- 
sure, temperature, and duration of contact, the physical structure of 
the rocks, and the nature of substances previously dissolved in the 
water influence the extent and the manner in which minerals are 
acted on by the solvent, but the effect of these conditions is sub- 
ordinate to that of the chemical composition of the rocks themselves, 
which is the chief determining factor of the mineral content of ground 
water. It is therefore not at all rare to find deep waters better than 
shallow ones. Many wells 1,000 to 3,000 feet deep in sedimentary 
rocks penetrate strata yielding widely different kinds of water, but 
without any relation to depth except in so far as depth has reference 
to the character of the rocks that contain the supplies. Indeed, these 
facts are so nearly self-evident that it would be needless to state them 



QUALIT1 FOB IRRIGATION. L23 

if belief in a general relation between depth and quality were not so 
frequently expressed. 

Differences in the quality of water Prom various depths can be 
detected in almost every Locality in San Joaquin Valley, but they 
arc not regular and can not l>c widely generalized. Nearly all the 
best waters on the oast side arc produced by wells 200 to 1,000 feet 
deep. They arc generally good for irrigation, fair for boiler use, and 
entirely acceptable for domestic supply. On the east side it is not 
unusual to find the water from wells 10 to 30 feet deep much harder 
than that from deeper wells. Similar greater mineral content of 
shallow waters from glacial deposits derived from calcareous forma- 
tions in the Central States has been noticed, and it is probably due 
to more rapid mechanical disintegration of the layers nearest the 
surface and to greater abundance of solvents like carbon dioxide in 
the upper waters. 

Geographical location has more influence than depth on the mineral 
content of well waters on the west side a few miles from the river, for 
the differences of composition among the waters at various depths 
are not so great proportionately as on the east side. 

The relations between depth and quality are more uncertain along 
the axis than in any other part of the valley. For example, wells 30 
to 100 feet deep in Stevinson Colony yield fresh water of moderate 
mineral content, but wells more than 300 feet deep yield undesirable 
salt water. On the other hand, water from wells less than 100 feet 
deep near Tulare Lake is highly alkaline, and the best supplies are 
obtained from wells 800 to 2,000 feet deep. 

QUALITY FOR IRRIGATION. 

EAST-SIDE WATEKS. 

Almost no trouble from poor quality of ground waters for irriga- 
tion has been reported throughout the east side of the valley, and 
available analyses amply confirm the results of experience besides 
indicating more territory into which this application may be ex- 
tended. Wells generally throughout the east side yield water that is 
good or fair for irrigation — the supplies may be used year after year 
with only moderate care to prevent alkali accumulation due to the 
mineral constituents of the waters. This statement should be sup- 
plemented by the warning that the soil in many sections already 
contains enough alkali to interfere with cultivation under ordinary 
conditions and that water of any quality, no matter how good, can 
not assist in producing full crops on such areas until the excess of 
sodium salts in the ground has been removed by drainage or by some 
other means. It is therefore important to note that statements re- 
garding the quality of waters for irrigation refer only to the action 
of the mineral ingredients of the waters in reducing or increasing the 



124 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

mineral content of the soil solution. On the other hand, notes of 
the actual effect of the waters on crops involve all growing conditions, 
such as the nature of the ground, the care given the crops, and other 
features; consequently a statement that crops have not flourished 
after having been irrigated by a certain water does not necessarily 
imply that the mineral constituents of the water did the damage. 

The best waters for irrigation on the east side are furnished by 
wells 200 to 1,000 feet deep, though a large number of shallow wells 
also are utilized. Within the artesian area south of Kings River 
water from wells as deep as 1,600 to 2,000 feet is satisfactory and has 
been used on crops. North of Fresno water from wells more than 
1,000 feet deep is poor, and near the northern end especially it is unfit 
for irrigation. Four waters that were tested from wells 1,200 to 
2,500 feet deep in and around Stockton are bad because they are 
strongly saline. Tests of the deep wells at the waterworks, a 1,162- 
foot well, and a 1,010-foot well near Stockton indicate that sodium 
replaces calcium as the predominant base at a depth of about 900 
feet and consequently that the ground waters become progressively 
poorer from that depth down to about 1,200 feet where the salty 
supplies are struck. So few deep wells could be tested south of San 
Joaquin County that it is uncertain how far southward this condition 
extends, but it seems reasonable to assume that it is general over the 
east side between Stockton and Fresno. 

WEST-SIDE WATERS. 

Wells are being pumped for irrigation at several places on the 
west side of the valley, and continued settlement of that region will 
undoubtedly result in greatly increased use. The ground waters of 
the west side, being much more highly mineralized than those of 
the east side, are poorer for irrigation. Few of those that were 
tested, however, are so bad that they are absolutely unfit for use, a 
fact all the more important because the absence of perennial streams 
and other surface supplies capable of being stored on the mountain 
slopes makes the adoption of ground supplies a necessary feature 
of utilizing the lands. Though the mineral content of the waters 
is high, the principal ingredients away from the axis are calcium, 
magnesium, and sulphate, the toxic alkalies being relatively low. 
Water of this calcium sulphate type can be applied to land without 
injury at far greater concentrations than are allowable for sodium 
waters; indeed, calcium sulphate in the form of gypsum or "land 
plaster' ' is often spread on fields to neutralize the deleterious effect 
of black alkali. 

Several tracts in western Fresno County now being irrigated by 
well water have not been under cultivation long enough fully to 
demonstrate the value of the waters, but sufficient time has elapsed 



QUALITY FOB [RBIGATION. 125 

to make it apparent thai selected crops under proper care can be 
raised. The results at the pumping stations of the Pacific (oast 

Oil Co., where lawns, fruit trees, and garden truck have been irri- 
gated for several years, also give favorable testimony as to the 
feasibility of utilizing the west-side waters. 

axial WATERS. 

Calcium and magnesium are the predominant bases in the typical 
waters of both sides of the valley, but they gradually become sub- 
ordinate toward the axis, where the alkalies, sodium, and potassium, 
occur in greater quantity. This alteration takes place more or less 
generally within the limits of the artesian area, and it is practically 
complete within the boundaries indicated by lines A' A' and B'B' 
of Plate II. Because of this alteration the axial waters are least 
desirable for irrigation, and further development of irrigation on 
both sides of the valley, with resultant increase of the more readily 
soluble constituents in the ground supplies, will probably make the 
axial waters still poorer and will also cause greater accumulation 
of alkali there in the soil. This probability that the axis will even- 
tually become the sewer for the rest of the valley suggests that safe 
cultivation of the ground there will necessitate the construction of 
dikes and underdrains for the purpose of removing the alkali and 
preventing undue rise of the ground-water level. Water from 
artesian wells 1,400 to 2,000 feet deep close to the present shore of 
Tulare Lake is being successfully used for irrigating alfalfa, grain, 
and other crops, but many wells less than 400 feet deep in that 
region yield unsatisfactory supplies. Tests of water from wells 
300 to 600 feet deep in Stevinson Colony indicate that the water is 
bad for irrigation, and attempts to use it in crops have been 
unsuccessful. It is understood that a similar failure followed use 
of some of the deep waters in Jamesan Colony. 

KESULTS OF USING GROUND WATERS. 

The character, mineral content, and classification of some supplies 
that have been applied to crops in San Joaquin Valley are presented 
in Table 28 in order to give a general idea of the kinds of water that 
are available. The tests have been grouped for convenience under 
three headings. Reference may be made to the tables of assays 
(pp. 182-294) for information regarding the value of other local 
waters for irrigation. The quality for irrigation has been computed 
from the analytical data and it is followed by a statement regarding 
the result of applying the waters to crops. Where no information is 
given other than that certain cultures have been irrigated it may be 
understood that those cultures have been irrigated for several con- 
secutive years without apparent ill effect due to the quality of the 
water. 



126 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

Table 28. — Types of ground water in San Joaquin Valley and their value for irrigation. 

East side. 



Total 

solids 

(parts 

per 

million). 


Chemical 
character. 


Quality 
for irri- 
gation. 


Results of use in irrigation. 


160 
160 
180 
190 
190 
190 
200 
200 
210 
230 
250 
258 
260 
400 
140 
150 
150 
160 
170 
170 
200 
220 
230 
300 
370 
390 
2,000 


Ca-C0 3 ..-- 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

NarCOs.— 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Na-Cl 


Good.... 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Fair 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Bad 


Irrigates alfalfa and sorghum. 

Irrigates alfalfa. 

Irrigates grapes. 

Irrigates peaches. 

Irrigates grapes and alfalfa. 

Irrigates grapes. 

Has irrigated garden several years. 

Irrigates garden. 

Do. 
Irrigates olive trees. 
Irrigates alfalfa. 
Irrigates orange trees. 
Has irrigated oranges 6 years. 
Irrigates garden. 

Irrigates alfalfa, garden, and fruit trees. 
Has irrigated grapes, alfalfa, and garden several years. 
Irrigates alfalfa. 
Used several years on alfalfa. 
Successfully used on grapes and alfalfa. 
Successfully used on alfalfa and fruit trees. 
Irrigates alfalfa. 

Used on garden truck 30 years without trouble. 
Irrigates alfalfa. 

Irrigates fig, peach, and other fruit trees. 
Used generally in city for lawns and gardens. 

Do. 
Destructive to crops. 



Axis. 



372 


Ca-COs--- - 


Good.... 


Irrigates orange trees. 


130 


Na-COs--- 


...do 


Irrigates lawn and garden. 


130 


...do 


...do 


Has irrigated alfalfa, cabbages, and garden truck 18 years. 


130 


...do 


...do 


Irrigates lawn, garden , and trees. 


140 


...do 


...do 


Irrigates grain and alfalfa. 


140 


...do 


...do 


Irrigates alfalfa. 


150 


...do 


...do 


170 


...do 


...do 


Used several years on alfalfa. 


190 


...do 


...do 


Irrigates orchard and garden . 


190 


...do 


Fail- 


Used 3 years on alfalfa, grapes, and peaches. 


200 


...do 


Good.... 


Irrigates garden and fruit trees. 


200 


...do....... 


Fair 


Irrigates alfalfa. 


210 


...do 


...do 


Used on alfalfa several years. 


218 


...do....... 


Good.... 


Irrigates melons, grapes, and garden truck. 


220 


...do 


Fair 


Irrigates alfalfa, grapes, and garden truck. 


220 


...do 


...do 


Irrigates asparagus. 


260 


...do 


...do 


Irrigates alfalfa. 


700 


...do 


Poor 


Used on alfalfa, garden, and orchard to some extent in 2 
years without bad effect. 


1,200 


...do 


Fair 


Irrigates garden. 


2,300 


...do 


Bad 


Kills grass around well. 


600 


Na-S04..~ 


Fair 


Has irrigated vegetables and berries 8 years. 


980 


...do 


Poor 


Used 1 year on garden. 


300 


Na-Cl..... 


Fail- 


Irrigates alfalfa. 


310 


...do 


...do..... 


Irrigates wheat and alfalfa. 


670 


...do 


Poor 


Used successfully on alfalfa. 


810 


...do 


...do 


Said to kill vegetation. 


1,210 


...do 


...do 


Has been used on grain and alfalfa . Not now used. 


1,600 


...do 


...do 


Garden truck did not grow well when irrigated with water. 
Tomatoes grew smaller each year. 


2,400 


...do 


Bad 


Tried unsuccessfully on crops. 



West side. 



410 


Ca-COs-..- 


Good.... 


Irrigates lawn and trees. 


620 


Na-S0 4 .... 


...do 


Irrigates garden and small fruit trees. 


950 


...do 


Fair 


Irrigates lawn and trees. 


1,600 


...do 


...do 


Has irrigated wheat and barley 2 years. 


1,200 


Ca-S04.... 


Good.... 


Irrigates lawn and trees. 


1,500 


...do 


...do 


Has irrigated alfalfa, cotton, and garden truck successfully, 
for 1 year. 


2,400 


...do 


Fair 


Has irrigated barley 1 year. 



QUALITY l-'Olt IUI{l«i.\ HON. 127 

The data in Table 28 prove thai the nature as well as fche quality 
of t ho dissolved matter has much to do with its effect. Waters 
containing as much as 1,200 to 2,400 parts per million of total solids, 
the chief constituents of which are calcium and sulphate, have been 

successfully applied to cultures. This quantity of mineral matter 
is greater than the maximum considered allowable in California 
Under the ordinary practice by Hilgard, 1 who evidently has alkali 
waters especially in mind. Continued use of these stronger waters 
will undoubtedly involve careful selection of crops and installation 
of underdrainage to prevent excessive accumulation of alkali. Many 
sodium carbonate or black alkali waters are being used without 
apparent trouble near the center line of the valley, but they are all 
rather low in mineral constituents, total solids being 140 to 400 
in the best waters and exceeding 800 parts per million in only a few. 
It is fortunate that the deep waters east of Tulare Lake are low in 
mineral matter, as they belong to the sodium carbonate class. 
The calcium carbonate waters, ranging in this valley usually from 
150 to 400 parts per million of solids, can be used without any trouble, 
and they are classed as good or fair for general irrigation. 

EFFECT OF COLD WATER. 

The slow development sometimes reported regarding cultures 
irrigated with ground water on the east side may be caused by the 
low temperature of the water when it reaches the feeding rootlets, a 
condition that is undesirable particularly during early stages of 
growth. Cold water has its greatest retarding effect when it is applied 
by flooding or by "basin irrigating," as the method of running water 
into shallow pools around the trunks of bushes and trees is known. 
When the water is applied through furrows it has opportunity to 
become warm before it reaches the delicate roots, and the harmful 
consequences of low temperature are thus avoided. The same 
result can be obtained by storing the supplies in reservoirs, though 
this occasions some loss by evaporation. It is customary in many 
districts to pump into reservoirs during the day and to distribute the 
supply during the night, when the loss by . evaporation is less and 
more water can therefore be absorbed by the ground, which also 
does not bake so badly on the surface after the downward percola- 
tion. The chill is taken from the water during this storage and sub- 
sequent damage is obviated. 

i Hilgard, E. W., Soils, p. 248, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1906. 



128 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

QUALITY FOR INDUSTRIAL USE. 
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Two transcontinental lines traverse the valley from end to end, 
comprising, with their branches and some shorter systems, about 
1,400 miles of track, along which the consumption of water by loco- 
motives is over 3,000,000 gallons a day. Most of this mileage is on 
the east side of the valley, where the best waters for boiler use are 
found, but two or three lines already enter the west side, and agri- 
cultural development there will soon necessitate more extensive trans- 
portation facilities. The numerous wineries in the vineyard dis- 
tricts, particularly around Stockton and Fresno, use large quantities 
of water for steam making and for washing vats and bins. Ice fac- 
tories are operated in the larger cities, where laundries and breweries 
also are important consumers. 

EAST-SIDE WATERS. 

The ground waters of the east side are generally suitable for boiler 
use without purification. As they belong mostly to the calcium 
carbonate type and contain practically no sulphate and rarely much 
chloride, they are not likely to foam or to be corrosive. The quan- 
tity of scale-forming ingredients ranges from 90 to 300 and of foam- 
ing ingredients from practically nothing to 250 parts per million. 
The supplies are generally good or fair for boiler use, form a soft scale, 
and do not require boiler compounds. 

Table 39 contains a summary of tests of east-side industrial sup- 
plies particularly in reference to boiler use. The softest supplies sup- 
plies almost everywhere on the east side are obtained from wells 200 
to 1,000 feet deep. Water from many wells less than 50 or 60 feet 
deep contains more scale-forming matter than that from deeper wells, 
and it is therefore less desirable for industrial use. This condition 
may be demonstrated by comparison of analyses at Stockton, Merced, 
Fresno, and Tulare, and, though it is not invariable, it is near enough 
so to make it worth while to investigate the quality of deeper waters 
before extensive industrial development is undertaken in unexplored 
localities. Wells more than 1 ,200 feet deep at Stockton, French Camp, 
and Madera yield salt water unfit for boiler use, and all wells of that or 
greater depth on the east side as far south as Fresno will probably 
yield bad water. Wells of the same depth in Tulare County, how- 
ever, yield supplies that are very low in scale-forming ingredients, 
noncorrosive, and low enough in foaming constituents to be classed 
as good or fair for boiler use. Some ground waters on the east side, 
more commonly shallow ones, contain enough iron to make them 



QUALITY FOB INDUSTRIAL USE. 129 

industrially undesirable. This type of water is avoidable, however, 
and water of acceptable quality may be obtained nearly everywhere 
on the east side. 

WEST-SIDE WATERS. 

The west-side supplies are very hard calcium sulphate waters. 
They form hard refractory scale in boilers, and many of them are cor- 
rosive, and consequently as a class they are undesirable for boiler use. 
The most highly mineralized sources were found in the west side of 
Fresno County and in the south part of western Merced County. It is 
understood that very bad boiler waters also are encountered west of 
Button willow in Kern County. Few of the waters used in boilers on 
the west side belong in the calcium sulphate class, for most of them 
are near enough to the axis to be predominant in alkalies. In order 
to avoid confusion, however, those from wells in the territory west 
of the boundary indicated by A'A' in Plate II have been entered in 
Table 29 as west-side waters. 

The quantity and hardness of the scale produced generally by west- 
side waters are such that softening is necessary before introduction 
of the waters into boilers. The Southern Pacific Co. treats 300,000 
to 350,000 gallons of water daily at Tracy and about 30,000 gallons 
at Westley, and avoids the use of ground water at Los Banos, Fire- 
baugh, and Mendota by pumping from San Joaquin River. The 
water at Tracy is treated with lime^and soda ash in a cold-water 
softening plant, about two-thirds of the incrusting matter being 
removed. The supply at Westley, fairly high in incrustants and in 
foaming constituents, is softened by means of lime, the sludge being 
dumped on the ground near the tanks. The supply at the ice factory 
of the Newman Light and Power Co. at Newman gives a large amount 
of hard scale even after having been passed through an open heater 
with a filtering attachment. Though the railroad supply at that 
place is much lower in incrustants it contains nearly as great quantity 
of foaming ingredients, and the city water is like the railroad supply. 
Experience at the pumping stations along the pipe line of the Pacific 
Coast Oil Co. is valuable not only in showing the normally poor 
quality of the west-side waters for boiler use but also in demonstrating 
how much can be done to improve them by scientific treatment. 
The pipe line, after entering the west side a few miles north of Tulare 
Lake, traverses it from south to north at a distance of 5 to 10 miles 
from the axis. Most of the boiler supplies along the line are of 
sodium sulphate character — that is, sodium and sulphate are the 
chief ingredients, but the waters also contain much calcium and mag- 
nesium. This makes them capable of forming considerable hard 
scale and of foaming when they are concentrated; altogether they 
98205°— wsp 398—16 9 



130 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

range from poor to very bad for boiler use in the raw state. It is 
general practice at the pumping stations to remove a large part of 
the incrusting matter by treating the supplies with soda ash in open 
heaters. The tendency to foam is increased in proportion to the 
quantity of soda ash added, but trouble from that source is obviated 
by frequent blowing off. The boilers are cleaned regularly every 
three weeks or of tener, and this attention coupled with the preliminary 
treatment makes it possible to utilize the waters without trouble or 
danger. The waters still farther west r however, are generally much 
higher in incrustants, and many of them are so hard that they could 
not be rendered fit for use by any treatment except distillation. 

AXIAL WATERS. 

Excellent supplies for boilers can be obtained from deep wells 
between Tulare Lake and the city of Tulare in Kings and Tulare 
counties. Several waters near Corcoran and Angiola produce almost 
no scale and can be strongly concentrated without trouble from 
foaming or corrosion. 

RESULTS OF USING GROUND WATERS. 

The more important facts in reference to the industrial supplies 
of the valley are summarized in Table 29. More complete details 
of the analyses can be obtained from the analytical tables (pp. 182- 
294) . The analyses have been grouped for convenience under three 
headings and by chemical character. 



QUALIT1 FOB INDUSTRIAL USE. 



131 



Table 29. —Some industrial water supplies in San Joaquin Vallq/. 

I Parts per million exoepl aa otherwise designated.] 

Baal side. 



Soale- 
forming 
Ingredi- 
ents (s). 


Foaming 
ingredi- 
ents (f). 


Proba- 
bility 
of cor- 
rosion 


Character 
of water, 


Quality 
for 

boilt'i>. 


Remarks. 


no 


10 


N. C. 


Ca-COg.... 


Fair 


Used En wine making and in boilers. Wash 

boilers once a week and get soft sludge. 
No compound used. 


90 


40 


X. C. 


...do 


Good 


1 sed in boilers. 


115 


40 


N.C, 


...do 


Fail- 


Used in beer making and in boilers. Some 
compound used. 


130 


40 


N.C. 


...do 


...do 


Used in wine making and in boilers. 
("lean boilers once m 3 months. A 
lii tie sludge removed. Blow one gage 
in 24 hours. Use skimmer. No com- 
pound used. 


135 


50 


N.C. 


...do 


...do 


Locomotive supply. 

Boiler supply. Clean boilers once a week, 


150 


40 


N.C. 


...do 


Good 












getting 7 to 8 pounds hard scale and some 












sludge No compound used . 


160 


20 


N.C. 


...do 


Fail- 


Distilled for ice making. Little sludge in 
boilers. Practically no scale on atmos- 
pheric condensers in 4 months. 


125 


80 


N.C. 


...do 


...do 


Locomotive supply. 


155 


60 


? 


...do 


...do 


Do. 


100 


10 


? 


...do 


Good 


Distilled for ice making. Little sludge. 


190 


90 


? 


...do 


Fail- 


Locomotive supply. 


300 


30 


? 


...do 


Poor 


Do. 


200 


140 


? 


Ca-SC-4.... 


Fak 


Do. 


300 


160 


? 


...do 


Poor 


Do. 


60 


80 


N.C. 


Na-COs... 


Good 


Do. 


100 


80 


N.C. 


...do 


Fair 


Boiler supply. Clean every 2 weeks. Egg- 
shell scale"; no corrosion; no compound 
used; blow one-half gage two or three 
times each shift. 


105 


100 


N.C. 


...do 


...do 


Locomotive supply. 


40 


250 


N.C. 


Na-Cl 


...do 


Do. 



Axis. 



70 


SO 


N.C. 


Na-C0 3 ... 


Good 


Boiler supply. Practically no scale. No 
treatment; no corrosion. Blow once in 24 
hours. 


70 


80 


N.C. 


...do 


...do 


Boiler supply. Cochrane heater. No 
chemicals. Practically no scale. 


70 


180 


N.C. 


...do 


Fair 


Used in 1,250 H. P. boilers. No scale; no 

pitting. 
Boiler supply. No trouble; no treatment. 


50 


70 


N. C. 


Na-Cl 


Good 



West side. 



260 


90 


? 


700 


270 


C. 


400 


350 


? 


250 


220 


? 


260 


840 


? 


125 


1,000 


N.C. 


230 
160 


790 
380 


N.C. 

N.C. 


105 


500 


N.C. 


500 


650 


? 



Ca-COs. 



Poor. 



Ca-SCu [ Very bad 



Na-SO^ 



...do. 



Bad. 



Poor 



...do I Very bad.. 



.do. 



...do.. 
...do.. 



..do 



Na-Cl. 



...do. 
...do. 



.do. 



Boiler supply, 
heater. Boil 



Use soda ash and Cochrane 
"oilers cleaned every 3 weeks. 

Biow 2 gages every 12 hours. 
Boiler supply. Use soda ash and Cochrane 

heater. 
Boiler supply. Boilers cleaned once a 

month. Scale hard, brittle, about ^ inch 

thick. Blow 1 gage every 24 hours. Soda 

treating plant being installed. 
Locomotive supply. Cold water softener 

with lime and soda ash used. 
Boiler supply. Use soda ash and Cochrane 

heater. Clean every 18 days. <Jet 60 to 

70 pounds eggshell scale. 
Boiler supply. Use soda ash and Cochrane 

heater. Scale thin, but hard and tough. 
Boiler supply. Treated with soda ash. 
Bad j Boiler supply. Use soda ash and Cochrane 

heater. Clean every 3 weeks. Blow 

once a day. 
Very bad. . ! Boiler supply. Use soda ash and Cochrane 

heater. Clean once in 3 weeks. Blow 

twice in 24 hours. 
Distilled for ice making. Open heater and 

compound. Large amount of hard scale. 



a N. C.=Noncorrosive ; C=corrosive ; ?=cori - osion uncertain or doubtful. 



132 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

QUALITY FOR DOMESTIC USE. 
DEPTH AND POSITION OF POOR SUPPLIES. 

Wells more than 1,200 feet deep in and near Stockton yield salt water 
unsuitable for domestic use, and though the available information indi- 
cates that the salinity decreases southward all wells 1,200 feet or 
more in depth as far south as Fresno probably yield salty water. 
Though some shallower supplies on the east side of the valley are 
moderately hard they are not excessively so, and they are generally 
acceptable for domestic use. 

Water fit to drink can not be obtained from wells close to the foot- 
hills in the southwest part of Kern County and at some places in 
western Fresno County. The highly gypsiferous waters of western 
Fresno County can not be used for cooking vegetables and they are 
nauseating to some persons. With the exception of these areas, how- 
ever, potable ground water can be obtained from wells throughout 
the west side. They are, as a rule, very hard, and the traveler who 
is not accustomed to drinking alkali water can readily notice the dis- 
tinct taste of the supplies west of San Joaquin River. They are not 
injurious, however, except in the localities just mentioned, and many 
of the strongly mineralized ones have been used without harm for 
several years. 

All the artesian waters north of Lemoore, except those containing 
enough chloride to be salty, are suitable for domestic use. The loca- 
tion of the chloride-bearing waters and the extent of the areas likely 
to yield such supplies are discussed on pages 117-119. Water from 
some wells less than 300 feet deep close to Tulare Lake is too strongly 
impregnated with black alkali to be potable. A few waters just 
south of Lemoore are highly colored and have a peculiar taste, proba- 
bly because of percolation through buried peat or other vegetable 
matter. The deeper supplies around Tulare Lake are exceptionally 
soft and low in all mineral ingredients and they are very good for 
domestic use. 

POSSIBILITY OF POLLUTION. 

The close-grained texture of the silt deposits in San Joaquin Val- 
ley, the consequent slow movement of the ground waters, and the 
general practice of boring wells and casing them form effectual safe- 
guards against pollution by surface drainage or seepage from privies 
and cesspools a reasonable distance away. Dug wells, so often ex- 
posed to contamination, form a small proportion of the domestic 
supplies because of the uncertainty of obtaining sufficient water at 
the shallow depths to which such wells can be sunk. If bored wells 
are constructed with care to insure tight casings to a depth of 40 or 
50 feet and if the collection of stagnant water or filth around the top 
of the casing is prevented, there is little danger of pollution. 



QUALITY FOB DOMESTIC USB. 



L33 



MUNICIPAL SUPPLIES. 



Cities on the west side near San Joaquin River could avoid troubles 
incident to the use of hard ground water and could more readily 
attract prospective manufacturers by drawing from San Joaquin 

River and its eastern tributaries. Such surface supplies would, of 
course, have to be filtered, for the streams arc subject to pollution 
by general infiltration, some sewage, and drainage from irrigated 
lands, but purification would be comparatively simple, and the 
resulting water would be clear, colorless, and tasteless and extremely 
low in alkalies and hardness. 

Almost all the cities of the valley are supplied with ground water. 
The composition of the supplies of which analyses are available is 
given in Table 30. 

Table 30. — Chemical composition of some municipal water supplies in San Joaquin 

Valley. 

[Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] 



City. 


County. 


Depth 
of well 
(feet). 


Silica 
(Si0 2 ). 


Iron 
(Fe). 


Cal- 
cium 
(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 
and 
potas- 
sium 

(Na+K). 


Car- 
bonate 
radicle 
(C0 3 ). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HC0 3 ). 


Alpaugh Tulare 

Corcoran 1 Kines 


2,000 

1,000 

278 

100 












Tr. 
9 




Tr. 













266 












99 


Dinuba 


Tulare 

do 












164 


Exeter 


6 39 
6 60 




26 

28 


9 
11 


32 

26 


144 


Lodi 


San Joaquin. . 


130 




Fresno 

Stanislaus 


640 


147 


Modesto 


650 
6 30 


0.40 


38 
66 
27 


10 
37 
12 


63 
a 238 
13 


110 


Newman 


do 

do 


f 396 
\ 398 


189 
120 




Tulare 

San Joaquin... 
do 


200 

( c ) 

(d) 

(«) 

(/) 
800 


200 


Stockton 


'"'"648" 

57 

6 16 


.12 
""."63' 
'"".'25' 


17 
23 
6.1 

14 
29 


7.0 
11 
7.2 

1 
4.0 


086 
84 
89 
24 

a 18 


205 


Do 


242 


Do 


do 


210 


Tulare 


Tulare 

do 


90 


Do 


122 



City. 


Sul- 
phate 
radicle 
(SO,). 


Chlo- 
rine 
(CI). 


Total 
hard- 
ness as 
CaC0 3 . 


Total 
solids. 


Chemical 
character. 


Analyst. 


Date. 




5 

Tr. 
Tr. 
11 

7 
430 

3 

125 

14 

Tr. 



5 

7.1 

3 
14 


180 

15 

40 

27 

36 

75 
127 
389 

20 

20 

64 

59 

35 
8 
9.0 


154 

29 

148 

a 100 

a 115 

83 

a 135 

a 310 

a 115 

160 

o71 

a 105 

a 45 

a 40 

a 90 


a 560 

a 180 

a 260 

215 

236 

a 910 

344 

1,016 

175 

a 250 

350 

349 

306 

111 

174 


Na-Cl... 
Na-C0 3 . 
Ca-C0 3 .. 


R. B. Dole 


Nov. 25, 1910 
Nov. 22, 1910 
Nov. 18,1910 
Dec. 29,1904 
May 4, 1908 
Nov. 1,1910 


Corcoran 


do 


Dinuba 


do 


Exeter 


...do 

...do 

Na-S0 4 . 

Na-Cl... 
...do 

Ca-C0 3 .. 
...do 

Na-C0 3 . 

...do 

...do..... 
...do 

Ca-C0 3 .. 


Southern Pacific Co 

do 


Lodi 


Mendota. . 


R. B. Dole 


Modesto 


Southern Pacific Co 

F. M. Eaton 


July —,1900 


Newman 


Oct. 13,1910 


Oakdale 


Southern Pacific Co 

R. B. Dole 


Oct. —,1900 


Porters ville. .. 


Nov. 21,1910 


Stockton 


F. M. Eaton 


Sept. 18, 1910 
Dec. 3, 1904 


Do 


D. B. Bisbee 


Do 


Walton Van Winkle 

Southern Pacific Co 

F. M. Eaton 


Oct. 1, 1910 


Tulare 


Apr. 2, 1902 
Nov. 14,1910 


Do 









a Computed. 

6 Including oxides of iron and aluminum. 

c Eleven wells at main pumping station 200 to 1,100 feet deep. 

d Fourteen wells 800 to 1,000 feet deep; water between 200 and 1,000 feet. 

e Four wells at electric pumping station, Monroe and Poplar streets, 665 to 975 feet deep. 

/ Depth not given; uncertain whether this is from 400 or 800 foot wells. 



134 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

The city supply of Bakersfield is taken from shallow wells near 
Kern River. Madera, Selma, and Visalia also are supplied from 
wells. Water from Merced River is used in the city of Merced. 1 No 
analyses of the city supply of Fresno, which is procured from deep 
wells, are available, but other wells in Fresno and vicinity yield soft 
or moderately hard calcium carbonate water, clear, tasteless, and 
entirely acceptable in reference to its mineral content for domestic 
use. The municipal supply of Los Banos is taken (1910) from an 
irrigation ditch within the city limits. The water is passed through 
successive beds of coarse gravel, fine gravel, and charcoal at an exces- 
sive rate that precludes proper purification. 

MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. 

ANALYSES BY THE CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 

Table 31 has been compiled from reports of the Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station of the University of California for 1897-8, 1898- 
1901 (Part II), 1901-3, and 1903-4, and from " Alkali lands, irrigation, 
and drainage in their mutual relations," by E. W. Hilgard, an appen- 
dix to the report for 1890. The analyses were reported in such form 
that it is impracticable to resolve them into ionic form for incorpo- 
ration in other tables of analyses, and they are therefore published in 
original form, except that the figures have been converted from grains 
per United States gallon into parts per million. The classification of 
the waters for irrigation is that reported by the laboratory, and it is 
not based on the method of interpretation employed by the writer. 

As nearly all the examinations are of miscellaneous samples for- 
warded to the laboratory by persons residing in the valley, data re- 
garding the location of the wells and their depths are necessarily 
incomplete. It should be understood, therefore, that the first two 
columns give the name and address of the sender, which do not 
always coincide with the name of the owner of the well and its location. 
For example, seven analyses of water from Fresno and six from Han- 
ford are reported, but evidently not all are from wells within the 
limits of these two cities. 

The results of nearly all these examinations accord with the writer's 
statements regarding the quality of ground waters in the valley. 
The amount of sulphate, however, represented by the alkaline sul- 
phates reported in the analysis of water from the 1,315-foot well at 
St. Agnes Academy, Stockton, disagrees with that reported by several 
chemists in tests of water from other deep wells in and near that city. 
The discrepancy is doubtless explainable by mixing of samples or 
error in computation. 

i Van Winkle, Walton, and Eaton, F. M., The quality of the surface waters of California: U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 237, p. 61, 1910. 



MISC'Kl 1.ANKOIS ANALYSES. 



135 



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GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 





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MTSCEl.I.ANKOrs ANALYSES. 



139 



ANALYSES BY THE RECLAMATION SEBTIOB. 

A few analyses of water from wells in San Joaquin Valley were 
made by chemists of the Reclamation Service during 1901 and L905. 
Though the results have heretofore been published ' they arc in- 
cluded herewith in order that the analytical records may be complete. 
The analysis of water from the 1,990-foot well at the State Insane 
Hospital, Stockton, agrees closely with those of water from other very 
deep wells in the city. The water of the well at Firebaugh is nearest 
in composition to that of the 532-foot well at Miller pumping station 
in sec. 22, T. 13 S., R. 14 E. The highly mineralized water from a 
flowing well reported as being at Tulare is undoubtedly from a well 
about 200 feet deep west of Angiola. Though the sources of the 
other samples can not be identified, the analyses of them agree 
entirely with the statements made in the preceding text. 



Table 32. — Analyses of ivater from wells in San Joaquin Valley by chemists of the 
United States Reclamation Service. 

[Parts per million.] 






Location. 



State Insane Hospital, Stockton « 
SE. i sec. 17, T. 11 S., R. 18 E. . . 
NE.isec. 11,T. 7S.,R. 12E... 
SW. i sec. 23, T. 7 S., R. 13 E . . . 

Tulareb 

Portersville 

Goshen 

Firebaugh 

Buttonwillow 

Bakersfield 

Dudley 



Count}'. 



San Joaquin. 

Madera 

Merced 

do 



Tulare... 
....do.... 
....do.... 
Fresno . . . 

Kern 

....do.... 
Kings.... 



Date. 



Mar., 1907. 
July, 1905. 

do 

do 



Dec, 1905. 

do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 



Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(C0 3 ). 



Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HC0 3 ). 



84 
174 
123 
336 
1,630 
205 

82 
195 
455 
254 
241 



Chlorine 

(CI). 



,620 

85 

14 

70 

436 

2 

7 

225 

35 

21 

183 



Dis- 
solved 
solids. 



6,940 
380 
328 
584 

2,110 
250 
156 

1,420 
816 
358 

2,090 



a Depth, 1,990 feet; calcium (Ca), 600; magnesium (Mg), 171; sodium and potassium (Na+K), 1,370; 
sulphate radicle (SO4), 8 parts per million. 
b Flowing well. 

FORECASTING QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 

The analyses and assays accompanying the county notes (pp. 
177-306) are tabulated by range, township, and section, the locations 
on the Spanish land grants being inserted in proper order to conform 
to that arrangement. The locations of the wells from which samples 
of water were collected are indicated in Plate II (in pocket). The 
tables show first the amounts of the ingredients determined by 
analysis, then certain computed amounts necessary to proper under- 
standing of the quality, and lastly classifications indicating the 
approximate nature of the waters and their general usefulness. The 
information thus tabulated is so detailed that it is not necessary to 
describe the waters individually in the text. The formulas that 



1 Stabler, Herman, Some stream waters of the western United States: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 
Paper 274, p. 146, 1911. 



140 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

have been used in the computations and the ratings by which the 
waters have been classified are fully described in pages 50-83. 

The best way to use this material in forecasting the local quality 
of water is to study the tabulated analyses in connection with Plates 
II, III, and V and figure 2. After analyses of the water of wells 
near the locality under consideration have been compared, sections 
through the locality should be drawn representing the depth of the 
wells in relation to the composition of their waters. The deeper a 
well is the greater the area over which its water may be considered 
representative, because the deep supplies circulate more slowly than 
the upper ones and are less affected by rainfall, vegetation, and 
slope. The general direction of movement of the deep waters is 
from the foothills toward the axis, gradually changing near the axis 
to a direction parallel with it. Waters within 20 to 50 feet of the 
surface are diverted more or less from this course by surface configu- 
ration — that is, shallow waters move toward near-by gullies, coulees, 
or watercourses. The somewhat meager information on the subject 
indicates that shallow wells in the sandy deltas yield better water 
than shallow wells in the slight depressions between the deltas, and 
that shallow wells in land showing alkali patches yield poorer water 
than those in nonalkali tracts. Several shallow wells in dry stream 
beds were found to yield less strongly mineralized water than neigh- 
boring wells not affected by the stream underflow. These conditions 
are not invariable, but if they are considered with judgment knowl- 
edge of them is helpful in predicting the quality of water in the unex- 
plored areas of the valley. 

SUMMARY. 

The more important conclusions regarding the quality of water in 
San Joaquin Valley may be summarized as follows: 

The waters of the perennial streams are entirely suitable for irri- 
gation; storage to remove suspended matter renders them accept- 
able for boiler use, and filtration would purify them for domestic 
supply. 

On the east side between the Sierra and the trough of the valley 
wells 20 to 1,000 feet deep generally yield calcium carbonate waters, 
moderate in total solids and in total hardness and distinguishable by 
their low sulphate content. These waters are suitable for domestic 
use, good or fair for irrigation, and fair or poor for boiler use. Many 
of them have been successfully applied to diversified crops for several 
years. Water from wells less than 50 feet deep is generally poorer 
than that from slightly deeper wells. 

On the west side wells between the Coast Range and the trough 
of the valley yield hard, gypseous waters high in mineral content 



SUMMARY. 141 

and especially in sulphate. Nearly all the waters taste of alkali, 
but they are potable except the most highly concentrated ones 

close to the foothills. The west-side waters are poorer for irrigation 
than those of tho cast, side, hut few of them are unfit for use if proper 
care is taken to prevent accumulation of alkali. They contain so 
much scale-forming matter that they should be softened before use 

in hoilers, and many of them are so strongly mineralized thai they 
can not he economically softened. 

In the axis or trough of the valley wells yield waters distinguishable 
by tho predominance of sodium and potassium among the basic 
radicles. These waters gradually mingle on either side of the valley 
with those of the east-side and west-side types, and they are locally 
altered by seepage from both sides of the valley. The ground 
waters in the axis differ much from each other in concentration and in 
composition and therefore in their economic value. Nearly all except 
the salt waters and those from wells less than 300 feet deep in or near 
the bed of Tulare Lake are potable. Many of those north of Kings 
River are poor for irrigation and are too high in foaming constituents 
to be suitable for steaming. The deep artesian waters south of Kings 
River are good or fair for irrigation and for boiler use. 

Borings more than 1,200 feet deep as far south as Fresno County 
yield strong salt waters unfit for use, but south of that county wells 
of that or greater depth, yield sodium carbonate waters of low 
mineral content. Many flowing wells 300 to 800 feet deep in the axis 
also yield salt water. 

The chief reason for the difference of composition between ground 
waters of the east and the west side is the different character of the 
sediments through which they pass; the silt brought down from the 
Sierra was derived from old, difficultly soluble rocks, but that from 
the Coast Range was derived from more recent met amorphic and 
sedimentary rocks containing gypsum and other readily soluble 
constituents. Alkalines predominate in the axial waters because 
the more readily soluble constituents have become concentrated 
during the movement of the waters toward the natural drain of the 
valley. 

The very deep waters of the east side and of the axis increase 
northward in mineral content, but the shallow waters show no such 
general relation. 



PUMPING TESTS. 

By Herman Stabler. 

NOTES ON THE PLANTS. 

During the summer of 1910 pumping tests were made on about 50 
irrigation plants in San Joaquin Valley, in connection with other 
studies of the water supply. In the following pages a description 
of each plant and test is given, with brief remarks concerning the 
results shown by the test. The date of installation is given in the 
heading. The data of chief interest to the irrigator have also been 
collected in Table 34, in which the various factors in the cost and 
relative efficiency of the several plants are presented. A summary 
of the principal points to be observed in order to obtain good service 
from a pumping plant is also appended. 

1. T. R. HILL, LODI, CAL. (1910). 

Location.— Lot 7 of the Hogan tract, SW. \ sec. 19, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo 
base and meridian. 

Plant. — 6-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 18-inch pulley; belt-connected 
to a 3^-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 
of 250-300 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 8 inches by 44 feet, uncased; water 8 
feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Engine, $235; pump, $85; well, $22; complete plant, $385. 

Use in 1910. — Preparation of land and irrigation of young alfalfa. Proposed plan 
of irrigation provides for the watering of 4 acres of alfalfa eight times. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a two-hour test of the plant on 
September 25, 1910. 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 0.96. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 256. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 310 (marked 325); pump, 686 (catalogue 
speed, 830). 

Head: 6-foot lift; 20-foot suction. Total static head, 26 feet. 

Remarks. — The plant is about as small as can be satisfactorily used for irrigating 
alfalfa but is far larger than a 4 or 5 acre alfalfa tract can support. The owner pays 
a building cost of $96 per acre, and the cost of plant depreciation, maintenance, 
and operation amounts to $17 per acre annually. At this rate more than half the 
value of all the alfalfa that can be raised will be required for the upkeep of the pump- 
ing plant and payment of taxes and interest and insurance charges. For the first 
few years this may not be noted by an owner who makes no allowance for deprecia- 
tion, but as the plant grows older the problem of renewal must be met. 

The efficiency of the plant is low. So far as could be noted without detailed study 
this is accounted for by the following facts: The engine is larger than is required for 
the work done and is underspeeded and fed an excess of distillate; the pump is much 
underspeeded. The owner can not hope to make a living on his small tracts by 
raising alfalfa, His net revenue could be greatly increased by supplying pumped 
142 






rr.MiMNt; tksts. 143 

Water to adjacenl lands and in BUCh case a 1-inch |)innp could profitably be installed. 

Care in designing the plant for proper speeds and in operating would add materially 

to the owner's success. 

2. J. C. DUTTON, LODI, CAL. (1906). 

Location. — SW. \ sec. 31, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 6-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 22-ineh ])iilley; belt-connected 
to a 4-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 
100 150 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 10 inches by 50 to 60 feet, uncased; water 
5 to 10 feet below the surface according to season. 

Building cost.— Engine, $290; pump, $100; well, $25; complete plant, $495. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 3 acres of vineyard watered two or three times, 1 acre 
of alfalfa, and 1 acre of eucalyptus trees watered once a week or about 12 times in the 
season. 

Test. — The following results w r ere obtained during an hour and a quarter test of the 
plant on September 26, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.00 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 380. 

Speeds, revolutions per minute: Engine, 248; pump, 666 (catalogue speed, 670). 

Head: 6-foot lift; 15-foot suction. Total static head, 21 feet. 

Remarks. — The plant is well designed and properly speeded. When tested the 
batteries were in poor condition and excess of distillate was being used. Poor ignition 
and relatively low efficiency resulted. The relatively large profits obtainable from 
a high grade of table grapes probably justify the installation of this plant. The area 
served is so small, however, that irrigation from it must necessarily be expensive. 
To provide for economical irrigation by means of this plant an area 10 to 15 times as 
great should be served with water. 

3. J. C. DTJTTON, LODI, CAL. (19091). 

Location— SW . I sec. 31, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 4-horsepower Peerless vertical distillate engine; belt-connected to a 3£- 
inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch lagged pulley, catalogue 
capacity 250-300 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 10 inches by 60 feet, cased for 12 
feet; water 14 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Engine and pump, $325; well, $30; complete plant, $400. 

Use in 1910.— Irrigation of 8 acres of vineyard and 2 acres of alfalfa. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 1^-hour test of the plant on 
September 26, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallon per hour, 0.75. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 265. 

Speed, revolutions per minute, engine, 310. 

Head: 8-foot lift; 19-foot suction. Total static head, 27 feet. 

Remarks.' — This plant gives results satisfactory in view of its size and irrigation 
costs that are not unreasonable in consideration of the value of the crops raised. 
Either plant No. 2 or No. 3, however, if properly located, could do the work of both 
with much greater economy. 

4. A. S. LA SALLE, LODI, CAL. (1902). 

Location. — NE. | sec. 25, T. 3 N., R. 6 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 12-horsepower Hercules distillate engine, 24-inch pulley; belt-connected 
to a 7-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 16-inch pulley, catalogue 
capacity 1,100-1,300 gallons per minute. Wells, three, bored, 8 inches by 90 feet, 
10 inches by 90 feet, 17 inches by 90 feet; water 11 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Engine and pump, $750; complete plant, $1,250. 



144 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 20 acres of alfalfa four times at the rate of 2 acres in seven 
hours. 

Test.— The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test of the plant on 
September 27, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate: No satisfactory measurement obtainable. Owner states 
that 12 gallons are required for a 10-hour run, corresponding to 1.2 gallons per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 868. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 300; pump, 410 (catalogue speed, 492). 

Head: 8-foot lift; 19-foot suction. Total static head, 27 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant apparently operates at high efficiency. Records of water 
pumped and distillate used are both somewhat doubtful, however, so the apparent 
efficiency may be too high. The engine has been given excellent care and operates 
in a very satisfactory manner after eight years' use. A 6-inch pump would be better 
suited to the plant than the one now in use. The 7-inch pump has to be speeded 
considerably below its economic capacity in order that the engine may not be too 
heavily overloaded. The owner of this plant has two other pumping plants on his 
property. One plant properly located could with much greater economy do the work 
of all three. 

5. J. H. HIGH, LODI, CAL. 

Location. Sec. 18, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant.' — Byron Jackson pumping unit, consisting of a 5-horsepower electric motor 
direct-connected to a 3-inch horizontal centrifugal pump; catalogue capacity, 225 gal- 
lons per minute. Well, bored, 8 inches by 25 feet; water 8 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Pumping unit, $513; well, $16; complete plant, $550. 

Use in 1910.— Irrigation of small garden and 2 acres of alfalfa; also, for pumping to 
elevated tank for domestic use. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 1-hour test on September 28, 
1910: 

Current used, kilowatt hours per hour, 4.0. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 300. 

Speed of motor and pump, revolutions per minute, 1,150. 

Head: 6-foot lift; 14-foot suction. Total static head, 20 feet. 

Remarks— The efficiency of the plant is low, probably on account of the high speed 
of the pump necessary for pumping to the elevated tank. The result on the lower 
lift used for irrigation is overspeeding, increased discharge, and low efficiency. The 
cost per acre of the plant is far too high to be justified by the value of the crops raised. 
It is essentially a luxury. 

6. P. H. TINDELL, LODI, CAL. 

Location. — SW. \ sec. 18, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 12-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine, 30-inch pulley; belt- 
connected to a 5-inch Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump with llj-inch pulley. 
Catalogue capacity 700 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 8 inches by 150 feet; water 
16 feet below the surface; pump installed in 1898, engine in 1906. 

Building cost.— Engine, $650; pump, $120; well, $200; complete plant, $1,000. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 5 acres of alfalfa six times, 13.5 acres of vineyard once, 
28.5 acres of vineyard twice, and 10 acres of vineyard three times. Two to two-and- 
a-half acres irrigated per day of 12 hours. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a one-hour-test on September 28, 
1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour (from owner's record, no measurement 
being obtainable), 1.20. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 605. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 263; pump, 645. 



PUMPING TESTS. 1-lf) 

Head: ll-foot lift; 20-foot suction. Total static head, 31 feet. 

Remarks. - This plant, being operated with Eaii efficiency to irrigate 52 acres, La sub- 
ject to the reasonable water cost of $3.60 per acre per year or $2.60 per acre-foot of 
water pumped. The crops raised can readily stand such a. charge. The amount of 

water used, I . I acre-feel per acre per year, is rather 1<>\\ because of the relatively small 
water requirement of vineyards. The plant Is of sufficient capacity to irrigate an 

area fully twice as greal as thai n<>\v watered from it. 

7. GEORGE D. KETTLEMAN. LODI, CAL. (1910). 

Location. — SW. j sec. 7, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

riant . — 20-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 30-inch pulley; belt-connected to 
a 6-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with L2-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 
800-1,000 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches by 46 feet, uncased; water 18 
feet below the surface. Engine house has substantial cement floor and very heavy 
concrete engine base. 

Building cost. — Engine, $760; pump, $90; well, $30; complete plant, $1,200. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 4 acres of alfalfa 10 times at the rate of 0.4 to 0.3 acre 
per hour. Also as insurance against drought for a large vineyard, though no irrigating 
water was supplied to the vineyard lands. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 4-hour test of the plant on 
September 29, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.83. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 914. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 222; pump, 530 (catalogue speed, 566). 

Head: 8-foot lift; 20-foot suction. Total static head, 28 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant is remarkable on account of the very high yield of the well, 
0.204 second-foot per foot of draw-down. Except for wells in a stream bed, no other 
well tested in San Joaquin Valley was found to have a capacity 85 per cent as great. 
A considerable amount of sand has been pumped out and on account of the heavy 
draft some sand continues in the discharge. The cost of operation in 1910 was $31 
per acre irrigated, a very large proportion of the value of the alfalfa raised. The 
building of such a large plantcan not be justified by the use to which it is put. The 
insurance against drought for the vineyard is perhaps its greatest value. In any case 
a considerably smaller plant would be fully as useful and much less expensive than 
the one installed. Only fair efficiency is obtained, the pump being slightly under- 
speeded and the engine working at small load. 

8. CHARLES RASH, LODI, CAL. (1909). 

Location. — NW. \ sec. 19, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 10-horsepower Samson distillate engine; 20-inch pulley; belt-connected to 
a 5-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 10-inch pulley; catalogue capacity, 
600-700 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches by 48 feet, uncased. 

Building cost. — Engine, $350; pump, $75; well, $30; complete plant, $550. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 2.5 acres of alfalfa six times. Available for use in 
vineyard also. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a two-hour test of the plant on 
September 30, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.50. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 406. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 303; pump, 596 (catalogue speed, 646). 

Head: 3-foot lift; 23-foot suction. Total static head, 26 feet. 

Remarks. — The plant is well designed in most respects. The pump should be set 
lower, however, in order to avoid excessive suction lift. The operating efficiency 
98205°— wsp 398—16 10 



146 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

was very low during the test. This was due in part to excessive feeding of distillate 
and in part to the presence of air in the pump. The pump was also somewhat under- 
speeded. In order to secure reasonable economy, the plant should serve a much 
greater acreage. As used in 1910, the building cost of the plant is $220 per acre irri- 
gated and the annual cost of irrigation $32 per acre, or $7.80 per acre-foot of water 
pumped. The crops raised are not of sufficient value to warrant such irrigation costs. 

9. JOHN TRETHEWAY, LODI, CAL. (1908). 

Location. — NW. \ sec. 11, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 25-horsepower Samson distillate engine; 32-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 
7-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 14-inch pulley (catalogue capacity, 
1,100-1,300 gallons per minute). Well, bored, 13 to 8 inches by 137 feet, cased; water 
26 feet below the surface. 

Building cost.— Engine, $900; pump, $120; well, $100; complete plant, $1,300. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of garden and of 14 acres of alfalfa, watered twice. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a two-hour test of the plant on 
October 3, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.57. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 425. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 220; pump, 460 (catalogue speed, 630). 

Head: 22-foot lift; 26-foot suction. Total static head, 48 feet. 

Remarks. — The operation efficiency of this plant was excellent when all conditions 
are considered, though the actual results were poor. The engine and pump were 
underspeeded in order that the capacity of the well might not be exceeded, and the 
distillate feed choked as far as practicable. A much smaller plant would pump with 
better efficiency all the water that the well can supply. More extended irrigation from 
this plant is proposed, but additional water supply from additional wells or from 
reconstruction of the present well will be necessary to make the plant a success. 

10. J. A. HIEB, LODI, CAL. (1907). 

Location. — SW. \ sec. 15, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 8-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine, 24-inch pulley; belt-con- 
nected to a 4-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch lagged pulley; 
catalogue capacity, 400-450 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 8 inches by 46 feet, 
uncased; water 19 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Engine, $470; pump, $70; well, $25; complete plant, $650. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 4 acres of alfalfa, watered 18 times, at the rate of one- 
third of an acre per hour. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a one-hour test of the plant on 
October 4, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour (owner's statement of average require- 
ment, no satisfactory measurement being obtainable), 1.00. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 444. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 275 (118 explosions); pump, 750 (catalogue 
speed, 743). 

Head : 7-foot lift; 20-foot suction; total static head, 27 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant is well designed, the various parts being well adapted to one 
another. The efficiency appears to be lower than would be expected, but this is 
probably due to the rather heavy draft of distillate. The building cost and operation 
and maintenance costs per acre of land irrigated are unreasonably high in view of 
the crops raised, for the plant is of sufficient size to irrigate an area twenty times as 
great as that for which it is actually utilized. 



. 



PUMPING I l-.sis. 147 

11. SAM KUMMIS, LODI, CAL. 

Location. — SE. \ sec. 24, T. 3 N., R. (i E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 
Plant. 12-horsepower distillate engine (unknown make), 36-inch pulley; belt- 
anected to a 6-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with L2-inch lagged pulley; 
catalogue capacity, 800-1,000 gallons per minute. Engine and pump on a portable 

platform and used to pump from three wells located a1 convenient points; water about 
8 feet below the surface. 

Estimated building cost. — Engine, $600; pump, $105; wells, $150; complete plant, 
$900. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 60 acres of almonds and alfalfa, mostly almonds. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a short test on October 4, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour (owner's statement of average use, no 
measurement beinu: obtainable), 1.20. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 444. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 138; pump, 400 (catalogue speed, 566). 

Head: 3-foot lift: 24-foot suction; total static head, 27 feet. 

Remarks. — The engine is an old one but is still doing good service. The plant 
operates at low efficiency, chiefly because the speed is very low, this being necessary 
in order to avoid excessive suction lift. A portable centrifugal pump can be used to 
advantage only in case the water table is close to the surface of the ground. An 
8-horsepower engine and a 4-inch pump would do the work of this plant with greater 
efficiency and at about two-thirds the building cost. 

12. W. G. MICKE, LODI, CAL. (1905). 

Location. — NW. i sec. 7, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — Byron Jackson pumping unit, consisting of a 3-horsepower electric motor 
direct-connected to a 2-inch horizontal centrifugal pump, catalogue capacity, 100 
gallons per minute. Well, bored, 5 inches in diameter, shallow; water 16 feet below 
the surface. 

Building cost. — About $250 for the completed plant. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 1.5 acres of alfalfa and garden five times at the rate of 0.06 
acre per hour. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test of the plant on 
October 6, 1910. 

Current used, kilowatt-hours per hour, 2.0. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 108. 

Speed of motor and pump, revolutions per minute, 1,700. 

Head: 6-foot lift; 19-foot suction. Total static head, 25 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant has low efficiency because of its small size. As it lies idle the 
greater portion of the time, the costs per acre are large even though the current is 
purchased on the basis of actual use. 

13. MRS. WM. P. BEARD, LODI, CAL. (1910). 

Location. — NW. \ sec. 30, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 5-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 20-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 
3|-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 7-inch pulley, catalogue capacity, 
250-300 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 8 inches by 50 feet, uncased; water 12 feet 
below the surface. 

Building cost. — Engine, $200; pump, $85; well, $4; complete plant, $325. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 2 acres of alfalfa and 0.3 acre of garden six times. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during an hour-and-a-half test on 
October 6, 1910. 

Consumption of distillate, gallon per hour, 0.80. 



148 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 249. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 276; pump, 716 (catalogue speed, 807). 

Head: 5-foot lift, 19-foot suction. Total static head, 24 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant is operated at low efficiency on account of small size, low speed 
of pump, and slip of belt. The area irrigated is so small that the building cost per 
acre and cost per acre of operation and maintenance are excessive. 

14. JACOB WAGNER (1904). 

Location. — NW. i sec. 19, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 12-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine, 28-inch pulley; belt-con- 
nected to a 5-inch Krogh "Pacific" horizontal centrifugal pump with 10-inch pulley, 
catalogue capacity, 500 to 950 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches by 115 feet, 
cased; water 14 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Complete plant estimated at $1,000. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 6 acres of alfalfa watered five times at the rate of 0.07 
acre per hour. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test on October 7, 1910. 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.25. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 299. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 232 (118 explosions); pump, calculated, 650 
(catalogue speed, 573). 

Head: 11-foot lift; 24-foot suction. Total static head, 35 feet. 

Remarks. — As is the case with most plants on which tests were made in this neighbor- 
hood, the costs are high by reason of the small area of irrigation. The efficiency of this 
plant is very low and can not be explained by reasons that were apparent. The dis- 
charge is far too small for size and speed of the pump, and there were indications of air 
leakage in the suction pipe. It may be, however, that poor condition of the pump or 
clogging of the foot valve is the cause of the low efficiency. The well is deeper than 
most in the vicinity, and the upper aquifers are cased off. This seems to have been a 
mistake in construction, as the capacity of the well is relatively small. 

15. W. E. BUNKER, GUSTINE, CAL. (1910). 

Location.— -NW. \ sec. 7, T. 9 S., R. 9 E. ; Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 100-horsepower Samson four-cylinder vertical distillate engine; direct-con- 
nected to a 26-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump, catalogue capacity 16,000 
gallons per minute. 

Building cost. — Engine, $2,850; complete plant, $3,950. 

Use. — Pumping for irrigation from a gravity canal through 8-foot suction and 12-foot 
lift (total static head 20 feet) to high lands. In 1910 156 acres of raw land was watered 
once at the rate of 0.64 acre per hour using 7.5 gallons of distillate per hour. Plan of 
irrigation provides for watering 350 acres of alfalfa twice per season. 

Remarks. — Though not an underground water development, this plant, which was 
visited but not tested, is cited as an example of a type of plant being installed at 
various localities on the west side of San Joaquin Valley in a region highly developed 
for alfalfa and dairying. The land is reputed to be salable at $30 per acre without 
and $300 per acre with a water right. Plants of this type extend the use of flood 
waters to high lands that could not otherwise be watered. Water is supplied by the 
canals only until sometime in July or August so that the growing season is relatively 
short. Plants that can quickly irrigate a large area seem to be essential in view of the 
conditions and the value of the crops seems to warrant rather high costs. From the 
use of distillate and time for watering it is evident that the plant was not operated at 
full capacity in 1910. 



PUMPING TESTB. 149 

16. JOE HOUSE, GUSTINE, CAL. (1909). 
Location. SW. j sec (i. T. S S., R . !) K., M-uuit Diablo* base and meridian. 

Plant. 25-horsepower Samson distillate engine; L4-inch Samson centrifugal pump, 
catalogue capacity 5,000 to 6,000 gallons per minute. 
Building cost. — Engine, $900; complete plant, $1,500. 

Use in n)io.- Irrigation of 77 acres of alfalfa twice at the rate of L.15 acres per hour. 

Remarks.- This plant receives its water supply from a gravity canal. The pump 
operates under water and has a lift of 5.5 feet to II acres and :'>."> feet to (>'.', acres of land. 
The costs for the season were SI!) for distillate at If) cents a gallon, $1 for lubricating oil, 
and a merely nominal amount for attendance. The water supply is usually available 
until some time in July or August. The plant was visited on October 11 but no tests 
were made. From the foregoing data, supplied by theowner, the efficiency is excellent 
and the total cost of irrigation about $2.90 per acre. To this should be added $1.50 to 
$3 per acre charged by the gravity canal company for the water supplied. 

17. PATTERSON COLONY, PATTERSON, CAL. (1910).i 

This plant is located near the new town of Patterson on the west bank of San Joaquin 
River about 30 miles southwest of Stockton. It is noteworthy as being the largest 
irrigation pumping plant in San Joaquin Valley . The Rancho del Puerto, or Patterson 
Ranch, contain ing about 18,000 acres of land, has been subdivided and is being sold in 
small holdings with a water right providing for irrigation of the lands with water 
pumped from San Joaquin River. The irrigable area contains about 14,000 acres and 
is watered with an assumed duty of water of 1 second-foot to 160 acres from five sections 
of main canal differing about 13 feet in elevation. The main pumping plant with a 
capacity of 50,000 gallons per minute (111 second-feet) is located on the river bank and 
raises the water about 21 feet to the first-lift canal. The first-lift canal supplies water 
to a large area of land and terminates in a small reservoir supplying a second pumping 
station that raises water to the second lift canal. The second-lift canal, in turn, 
supplies water to the land and through a reservoir to a third pumping station. In the 
same way the fourth and fifth pumping stations and the third, fourth, and fifth lift 
canals are operated. The canals and reservoii-s are lined with concrete and extend 
about 17,500 feet in a straight line west from the river. The motive power is electricity 
supplied 19 hours a day (to avoid peak load) at the low rate of three-fourths of a cent 
per kilowatt-hour actually used. The pumps are of the horizontal centrifugal type, 
were specially designed for the conditions under which they operate, and gave effi- 
ciencies over 75 per cent in tests at the factory. The pump equipment planned for 
the several stations (about half installed in 1910) is as follows: 

Table 33. — Pumping equipment, Patterson colony. 



Sta- 
tion. 


Number and size of pumps. 


Station 
capacity in 
gallons per 

minute. 


Accumu- 
lated lift 
in feet. 


1 


Four 20-inch 


50,000 
46,000 
31,000 
18,000 
6,000 


21 


2 




34 


3 




47 


4 




60 


5 


One 15-inch 


73 









1 The construction of this pumping system has been described in detail by G. C. Stevens (Eng. Record, 
vol. 62, pp. 284-286, 1910). 



150 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

18. P. ALLING, LODI, CAL. (1908). 

Location. — NE. \ sec. 30, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 5-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 17-inch pulley; belt-connected to 
a 4-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch lagged pulley, catalogue 
capacity 400-450 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 6 inches by 46 feet, uncased; 
water 11 feet beneath the surface. 

Building cost.— Engine, $200; pump, $70; well, $25; complete plant, $355. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 3.5 acres of alfalfa and a small area of eucalyptus trees 
and garden eight times at the rate of 0.12 acre per hour. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test on October 13, 1910. 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 0.97. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 406. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 328; pump, 642 (catalogue speed, 694). 

Head: 7-foot lift; 16-foot suction. Total static head, 23 feet. 

Remarks. — The well at this plant has very great capacity for one of so small a diame- 
ter. The efficiency of the plant is low and is accounted for by the use of an excess of 
distillate. The unit costs are high on account of the small area irrigated. The plant 
is well kept, and with more extensive irrigation operations would give excellent results. 

19 AND 20. HOGAN BROS., LODI, CAL. (1904). 

Location. — SW. £ sec. 19, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 12-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine, 22-inch pulley; belt-con- 
nected to a 5-inch Krogh "Pacific' ' horizontal centrifugal pump with 10-inch pulley, 
catalogue capacity 500-950 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches by 46 feet, 
uncased ; water 9 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Complete plant, $1,000. 

Use in 1910. — In conjunction with plant No. 21, for the irrigation of 30 acres of 
alfalfa, 5 acres of strawberries, and 5 acres of garden truck. 

Tests. — The following results were obtained from a 1.5-hour test of the plant on 
October 5, 1910, and a 2-hour test on October 14, 1910, respectively. 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.67-2.12. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 710-640. 

Speed, revolutions per' minute: Engine, 267-271 (117-124 explosions); pump, 
557-577 (catalogue speed, 524). 

Head: 3.5-foot lift; 24.5-foot suction. Total static head, 28 feet. 

Remarks. — The engine is an old one. The cylinder has been rebored and at the 
time of the test needed repacking as it allowed considerable escape of gases. An 
excess of distillate was being used. The efficiency of the plant was low, but the unit 
costs are better than for many neighboring plants because a larger relative area is 
irrigated. 

21. HOGAN BROS., LODI, CAL. (1909). 

Location. — SW. \ sec. 19, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 12-horsepower Union vertical distillate engine, 18-inch pulley; belt-con- 
nected to a 5-inch Globe horizontal centrifugal pump with 14-inch pulley. Well, 
bored, 12 to 6 inches by 55 feet, cased 25 feet; water 12 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Complete plant, $1,000. 

Use in 1910. — In conjunction with plant No. 20, for the irrigation of 30 acres of 
alfalfa, 5 acres of strawberries and 5 acres of garden truck. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 1.5-hour test of the plant on 
October 14, 1910. 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.38. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 500. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 343; pump, 427. 

Head: 2-foot lift; 25-foot suction. Total static head, 27 feet. 









PUMPINc TESTS. 151 

Rcmarh. — This plant is operating at low efficiency. This is probably due in pari, 
to the great suction lift approaching the limit of practicable operation, and in part to 

the low speed of the pump. The economic discharge and speed of pump are not 

known, but it is probably considerably underspeeded and working at low efficiency 
to develop a relatively small discharge. 

22. E. P. TYLER (1910). 

Location.— Lot 233, Merced Colony; NE. \ sec. 5, T. 8 S., R. 14 E., Mount Diablo 
base and meridian. 

Plant. — 35-horsepower General Electric Co. induction motor, 9£-ineh pulley; 
belt-connected to a 10-inch Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump with 21-inch pulley, 
catalogue capacity, 3,000 gallons per minute. Wells, bored, one 12 to 10 inches by 
172 feet, one 12 to 8 inches by 292 feet, one 12 to 8 inches by 220 feet, all cased 40 
to 50 feet; water 6 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Wells, $680; house, $150; installation, $220; pump, motor, and trans- 
formers, $1,950; complete plant, $3,000. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 4 acres of alfalfa and as demonstration pumping plant for 
Merced Colony. Will be used to irrigate all crops on a ranch of 174 acres. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on October 18, 
1910. 

Current used, kilowatt-hours per hour, 28 (owner's record for season). 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 2,160. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Motor, 1,160; pump, 550 (catalogue speed, 550). 

Head: 5-foot lift; 23-foot suction. Total static head, 28 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant operates with only fair efficiency, and though the pump is 
apparently speeded properly the discharge is far below the catalogue capacity. There 
were some indications of air leakage in the suction pipe, but the cause of the poor 
results was not ascertained with certainty. Electric current was obtained at the rate 
of 3 cents per kilowatt-hour delivered. The plant costs were high in 1910, but with 
increase in area irrigated as proposed will be reduced to reasonable amounts. 

23. W. R. GIRARD, MERCED, CAL. (1910). 

Location.— Lot 185, Merced Colony; SW. \ sec. 32, T. 7 S., R. 14 E., Mount Diablo 
base and meridian. 

Plant. — 10-horsepower General Electric Co. induction motor, 8^-inch pulley; belt- 
connected to a 5-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 14-inch pulley; cata- 
logue capacity 600-700 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches by 235 feet, cased 
for about 50 feet; water 6 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Transformers, $131; motor, $209; pump and accessories, including 
digging pit and installing pump and motor, $206; building, $50; well and casing, 
$174; miscellaneous supplies and labor, $38; complete plant, $808. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 18 acres of alfalfa. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 1-hour test of the plant on 
October 18, 1910. 

Current used, kilowatt-hours per hour, 8.6. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 630. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Motor, 1,160; pump, 700 (catalogue speed, 581). 

Head: 3.5-foot lift; 16.5-foot suction. Total static head, 20 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant was in good condition when tested. The pump is apparently 
slightly overspeeded but no reason for appreciable lack of efficiency was apparent. 
Nevertheless the recorded efficiency was very low. The record of current used, how- 
ever, was taken from a meter reading without other tests and is probably too high. A 
meter reading of about 6 kilowatt-hours would have indicated a satisfactory efficiency. 



152 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

24. S. M. PATE, MERCED, CAL. (1905). 

Location. — NW. \ sec. 2L, T. 8 S., R. 13 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 15-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 28-inch pulley; belt-connected to 
a 6-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 12-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 
800-],000 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches in diameter; water 15 feet 
below the surface. 

Building cost. — Complete plant, estimated, $760. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of several acres of alfalfa. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on October 19, 
1910. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 765. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 231; pump, 547 (catalogue speed, 592). 

Head: 9-foot lift; 21-foot suction. Total static head, 30 feet. 

Remarks. — No measurement or owner's record of use of distillate could be obtained. 
The pump is slightly underspeeded and operates below economical capacity. 

25. JESSE RODERIGS, MERCED, CAL. (1907). 

Location. — NW. \ sec. 10, T. 7 S., R. 13 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 12-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 24-inch pulley; belt-connected to 
a 6-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 12-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 
800 to 1,000 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 10 to 7 inches by 84 feet, cased 71 feet; 
water 9 feet below the surface. 

Building cost.— Well and casing, $68; building, $66; complete plant, $700. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 9 acres of grapes once, 16 acres of sweet potatoes once a 
week, and 3 acres of alfalfa five times. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 1.5-hour test of the plant on 
October 20, 1910. 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.61. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 400. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 232; pump, 460 (catalogue speed, 575). 

Head: 8-foot lift; 20-foot suction. Total static head, 28 feet, 

Remarks. — During the latter part of the test the engine was speeded up to 256 revo- 
lutions per minute and the discharge increased to 450 gallons per minute with 4 feet 
additional draw down. The speed regulator on the engine was worn so that normal 
speed could not be maintained, the extra speed during the latter part of the test being 
secured by a temporary makeshift. 

Though the pump is underspeeded it is apparently not producing the discharge that 
it should and probably needs careful overhauling. The engine is using an excess of 
distillate and leaks badly around the piston. The efficiency is low. The plant is too 
large for the owner's use as he states that the discharge is as great as he can take care of 
to advantage. An 8-horsepower engine and a 4-inch pump would be a much more 
suitable and economical installation for this plant. 

26. A. L. SAYRE, MADERA, CAL. 

Location. — SE. \ sec. 31, T. 11 S., R. 18 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 50-horsepower electric motor, 16-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 10-inch 
Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump with 14-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 3,900 
gallons per minute. Three wells, bored, 10 to 12 inches by 110 feet, uncased; 
water 19 feet below the general surface; pump installed in 1903; electric machinery 
in 1909. 

Building cost. — Transformers, $660; motor, $550; wiring, etc., $150; pump, about 
$550; complete plant, $3,000. A gas producer and gas engine costing $2,800 formerly 
operated the plant but have been discarded for electric machinery. 



PUMPING TESTS. 153 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 225 acres of vineyard once, and 150 acres of alfalfa, five 
times, and 55 acres of hay and Borghum twice. Operated almost continuously from 
March or April to October. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 3. 5-hour test of the plant, on 
October 2 1, supplemented by a brief test on October 23, 1910. 

Current used: 30. (J kilowatt -hours per hour by meter measurement, equivalent to 
49.0 horsepower. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 2,300. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Motor, 689; pump, 800 (catalogue speed, 650). 

Head: 19.5-foot lift; 21.5-foot suction. Total static head, 41 feet. Suction head 
by gage, 22.5 inches of mercury or 25.5 feet; hence total head including friction is 
about 45 feet. 

Remarks. — After the test on October 21 the owner protested that the measurement 
of water must be in error. Accordingly a second measurement was made on October 
23 with essentially the same result. Every precaution was taken to insure accurate 
results, and there can be no serious doubt of the recorded flow. The pump is operated 
at excessive speed and should under these conditions give a discharge of more than 
3,000 gallons per minute, but presumably on account of wear and great suction lift 
the actual discharge does not exceed 2,300 gallons per minute. As the plant is oper- 
ated almost continuously throughout the irrigation season to water a large area the 
unit costs are low. The water-right charge or building cost amount to only $7.50 per 
acre and the cost of operation and maintenance, including depreciation, renewals, and 
repairs, amounts to only $3.60 per acre, or $1.50 per acre-foot of water pumped. 
Irrigation can scarcely fail to be profitable on such terms even with crops of relatively 
small value. 

This plant had a larger discharge than any other tested and was so operated as to 
give irrigation costs that could be compared favorably with those of any other plant 
in the valley working under similar conditions as to head and rate charged for power. 

27. H. W. PATTERSON, BORDEN, CAL. 

Location. — SW. \ sec. 8, T. 12 S., R. 18 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 42-horsepower steam traction engine, 40.5-inch pulley; belt-connected to 
an 8-inch Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump with 15. 5-inch pulley, catalogue 
capacity, 1,600 gallons per minute. Wells, bored, 10 inches by 96 feet and 10 
inches by 134 feet; water 22 feet below the surface. Reservoir with earth embank- 
ments and capacity of about 1,000,000 gallons, used to collect water pumped at night; 
pump installed in 1904; engine purchased in 1909. 

Building cost. — Complete plant, $3,500. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 30 acres of orchard twice, 50 acres of alfalfa four times, 
and 40 acres of corn and barley once. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on October 24, 
1910. 

Consumption of crude oil, gallons per hour, 14.00 (owner's record from test run of 
15.5 hours). 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 1,320. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 229; pump, 588 (catalogue speed, 695). 

Head: 19.5-foot lift, 20.5-foot suction (19 inches by gage). Total static head, 41 feet. 

Remarks. — This is one of the few steam pumping plants remaining in the valley and 
the only one tested. The costs are not materially different from those for distillate 
or electric plants under similar conditions, but the additional attention required in 
the operation of a steam plant is responsible for its general unpopularity. 

The pump is underspeeded and produces a relatively low discharge. 



154 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 
28. S. W. SKAGGS, BORDEN, CAL. (1907-8). 

Location. — SE. \ sec. 6, T. 12 S., R. 18 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 30-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 46-inch pulley; belt-connected to 
a 6-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump with 10-inch pulley. Wells, bored, 112 
and 186 feet in depth, cased; water 14 to 18 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Complete plant, $3,200. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 60 acres of alfalfa three times. (First two waterings in 
season given from gravity supply.) 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test of the plant on 
October 24, 1912. 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 3.8. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 780. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 204; pump, 905. 

Head : 16-foot lift, 25.5-foot suction (by gage) . Total static head about 42 feet. 

Remarks. — The engine was using an excessive amount of distillate and the efficiency 
is in consequence low. Great suction lift probably also contributes to the low effi- 
ciency. The building and operation and maintenance costs are reasonable. 

29. WALTERS BROS., MADERA, CAL. (1903). 

Location. — Sec, 32, T. 11 S., R. 18 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 45-horsepow3r Hercules distillate engine, 70.5-inch pulley; belt-connected 
to a 7-inch California (Krogh) horizontal centrifugal pump with 20-inch pulley. 
Wells, bored, 10 inches by 104 feet, cased, and 10 inches by 174 feet, cased to 134 
feet; water 22 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Complete plant, $3,500, including $500 for pump pit. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 50 acres of alfalfa four times; 35 acres of vineyard once, 
and 15 acres of hay and barley twice, at the rate of 0.35 acre per hour. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on October 
25, 1910. 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour: 4.00 (from owner's statement, no accu- 
rate measurement being obtainable). 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 1,900. 

Speed, revolution per minute: Engine, 162; pump, 565. 

Head: Lift, 21 feet; suction, 25.5 feet (by gage). Total static head about 46 feet. 

Remarks. — The efficiency of this plant appears to be very high but both use of dis- 
tillate and discharge are open to question. The plant is well operated and gives good 
results as to cost when the head is considered. 

30. VALLE-VERDE INVESTMENT CO., FRESNO, CAL. (1909). 

Location. — Near Mendota, Cal., in sec. 2, T. 14 S., R. 14 E., Mount Diablo base and 
meridian. 

Plant. — 75-horsepower Samson vertical 3-cylinder distillate engine, 40-inch pulley; 
belt-connected to an 8-inch Jackson double-suction vertical centrifugal pump with 
13-inch pulley; catalogue capacity, 1,600 gallons per minute. Wells, bored, 12 
inches by 380 feet and 450 feet, cased and 80 feet of casing perforated; 9.6 inches by 
414 feet, cased and 80 feet of casing perforated and wrapped spirally with wire of 
triangular cross section; water 52 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Complete plant, $6,500, including $1,500 for the two 12-inch wells 
and $1,800 for the third well. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 2 acres of alfalfa eight times, 6 acres of broom corn twice, 
40 acres of Egyptian corn twice, 10 acres of Kaffir corn three times, and a half acre 
of garden twelve times. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on October 27, 
1910. 



PUMPING TESTS. 155 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 7 .27 '. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 1,080. 

Head: 51-foot lift; 31-foot suction (by gage). Total static head about 82 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant is the only one <>n the "west side" that was tested. Tne 
depth to water is over 50 feet and the flow of water, occurring in One sand, is nut free. 
The two wells without special casing give a comparatively small flow because of 
clogging with sand. The third well gives much better results, being fitted with a 
special screen such as is described by Bowman. 1 After all, however, the suction head 
is excessive and accounts for the fairly low efficiency of the plant and the small dis- 
charge of the pump. 

The building cost of the plant is about $34 per acre of land that it will irrigate, 
though with the small area now watered the cost is over $100 per acre. The cost of 
operation and maintenance is now about $8.40 per acre-foot of water pumped but 
could be reduced to $4.10 per acre-foot if operated for the irrigation of a larger area. 
The costs, even under the best conditions, must be a relatively high proportion of 
the value of ordinary crops raised and every care should be taken to secure economy 
in the operation of such a plant if it is to be used successfully. 

31. ROSEDALE WATER CO., PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1897). 

Location. — Sec. 3, T. 22 S., R. 28 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 20-horsepower Westinghouse induction motor; direct-connected to a 4-inch 
California (Krogh) horizontal centrifugal pump. Wells located adjacent to and on 
both sides of Tule River as follows: Dug well 28 feet deep; bored well 12 inches 
by 35 feet; shaft or dug well 18 feet deep. Wells connected by tunnel or piping. 

Building cost. — Complete plant estimated, $1,300, not including extensive system 
for water delivery. 

Use in 1910. — Operated continuously from April to October 15 for four and five 
waterings of 22 citrus orchards aggregating 177 acres in area. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
3, 1910. 

Current used, horsepower, 23.00 (from power company's bill), equivalent to 17.15 
kilowatt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 565. 

Speed, of motor and pump, revolutions per minute, 1,125. 

Head: 74-foot lift; 5-foot suction. Total static head, 79 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant is owned and operated in cooperation by 22 orchardists. 
Each pays to the cooperative organization 50 cents per hour for the time that water 
is supplied by the plant to his lands. In this manner all receive irrigation water 
much more economically than if each owned a plant for his own exclusive use. 
Being operated continuously throughout the irrigation season the cost of pumping 
water amounts to less than $2.50 per acre-foot even though the head is 79 feet. The 
wells are located on the edge of Tule River and generally give a full supply of water 
with little drawdown. The water level fluctuates considerably during the season, 
however, and the plant can not be run at full capacity at all times. The water is 
pumped through 900 feet of 12-inch pipe to the highest land to be irrigated and 
then flows in open cement flumes to the various orchards. 

32. D. C. SETTLEMIRE, PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1910 

Location. — SW. £ sec. 12, T. 22 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 12-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine; belt-connected to a . 
Downie geared double pump head. Well, bored, 12 inches by 180 feet; water 33 feet 
below the surface. 

1 Bowman, Isaiah, Well-drilling methods: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 257, p. 98, 1911. 



156 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

Building Qost. — Complete plant, $2,500. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 9 acres of young orange trees and small garden five 
times. Will be utilized for irrigation of about 40 acres. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 

3, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.00 (owner's record, no satisfactory 
measurement being obtainable). 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 165. 

Speed: Engine, 264 revolutions per minute (66 explosions); pump, strokes per 
minute, 32. 

Head: Cylinder, 100 feet below pump head. Total static head, about 50 feet. 

Remarks. — The test of this plant was not wholly satisfactory. The pump was evi- 
dently discharging far below its rated capacity and the engine working on a very light 
load. The efficiency was consequently low. The small discharge could be explained 
satisfactorily by a worn-out or clogged valve or other similar condition at the cylinder. 

Under the conditions of operation in 1910 the costs of irrigation were excessive. 
With the pump in good condition and the entire 40-acre tract irrigated, however, the 
costs would be reasonable. 

33. G. A. MARTIN, PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1908). 

Location. — SE. £ sec. 12, T. 22 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 3-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse induction motor; belt-connected to a single- 
action Krogh pump head with 19-inch stroke. Well, bored, 10 inches by 100 feet; 
water 60 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Complete plant, $900. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 7 acres of oranges and 3 acres of garden truck five times 
at the rate of 0.042 to 0.037 acre per hour. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 

4, 1910: 

Current used, 3. 3-horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 2.46 kilo- 
watt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 38.3. 

Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute, 1,800; pump, strokes per minute, 21. 

Head: Cylinder, 94 feet below the pump. Total static head, about 70 feet. 

Remarks. — The efficiency of this plant is very low, but, aside from the small size of 
the machinery, no poor working conditions were apparent. The costs, though high, 
are no doubt warranted by the relatively high returns from citrus culture. 

34. R. W. JOB, PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1910). 

Location. — NE. £ sec. 13, T. 22 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 15-horsepower General Electric induction motor; belt-connected to a 
No. 3 double-action straight-line deep-well pump with 30-inch stroke. Well, bored, 
12 inches by 285 feet; water 80 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Pump and motor, $2,400; well, $900; complete plant, $3,500. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 80 acres of young orange trees five to six times. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
4, 1910: 

Current used, 15.32-horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 11.43 
kilowatt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 210. 

Speed: Motor, 1,185 revolutions per minute; pump, 16.5 strokes per minute. 

Head: Cylinder, 120 feet below the pump. Total static head, about 140 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant operates with satisfactory efficiency, and the costs of irrigation 
are reasonable for citrus culture. 



PUMPING CBSTS. J 57 

35. BLACHERNE WATER CO., PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1907). 
Location. — SE. ] sec. 23, T. 21 8., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. 15-horsepower Westinghouse induction motor; belt-connected to a No. 30 
power head Anion deep-well pump with 24-inch stroke Well, bored, L0 inches 
by 112 feet; water about 60 feet below the surface. 

Building cost.— Pump, motor, etc., $2,326; well and 12 acres of land, $1,200; com- 
plete pumping plant, about $3,500; complete system, including pumping plant, 
1,200 feet of 8-inch wood-stave "pipe, about 6,600 feet of cement flume, and 12 acres 
of land, $4,S00. 

Use in 1910. — Operated practically continuously from April to October, inclusive, 
for tin 1 irrigation of 45 acres of oranges. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
5, 1910: 

Current used, 16.00 horsepower (from power company's bills), equivalent to 11.9 
kilowatt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 172. 

Speed: Motor, 1,133 revolutions per minute; pump, 22 strokes per minute. 

Head: 80 feet below and 125 feet above the power head. Total static head about 
205 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant pumps water through 1,200 feet of 8-inch wood-stave pipe 
to a hill crest from which it flows through about 6,600 feet of cement flume to five 
citrus orchards aggregating 45 acres. The plant is owned and operated by a coopera- 
tive stock company, the stockholders being owners of the lands irrigated. Each 
irrigator is assessed $2 per acre per month for water service. The stave pipe leaks 
appreciably, but the plant, nevertheless, shows high efficiency. The costs of opera" 
tion, though high per acre of land irrigated on account of the great lift, are warranted 
by the value of the citrus-fruit production. 

36. HILO PUMP, PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1904). 

Location. — NW. i sec. 23, T. 21 S., It. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 30-horsepower Westinghouse induction motor; direct-connected to a 4-inch 
Price horizontal centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 12 inches by 165 feet, water 30 feet 
below the surface. 

Building costs. — Complete plant, $3,500. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 100 acres of citrus orchards. 

Tests. — The following results were obtained during tests on the high and low lifts 
on November 5, 1910: 

Current used, 30.10 horsepower (from power company's bills), equivalent to 22.5 
kilowatt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute: High lift, 410; low lift, 383. 

Speed: Motor and pump, 868 revolutions per minute. 

Head: 92-foot (high) lift; 25.5-foot (low) lift; 25-foot suction. Total static head, 
117 feet (high) and 50 feet (low). 

Remarks. — This plant pumps water for a small area under the low lift at the pump- 
ing plant and for 90 or more acres under the high lift through 700 feet of 12-inch wood- 
stave pipe to a cement ditch from which distribution is made to the several orchards. 
An assessment of $1.75 per acre per month is made for water service. Among the 
expenses of operation are the wages at $22.50 per month of a superintendent, who 
operates the plant and distributes the water. The efficiency of the plant is good 
and the costs are reasonable for the lift. 



158 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

37. COPO DE ORO WATER CO., PORTERSVILLE, CAL. 

Location. — SW. \ sec. 14, T. 21 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 30-horsepower Westinghouse motor; belt-connected to a double plunger 
Ames pump head, 11-inch cylinder, 28-inch stroke. Well, dug 60 feet, then tunneled 
and drilled in rock to about 150 feet* water enters about 50 and 150 feet and stands 
20 to 30 feet below surface. 

Building cost. — Complete plant, $6,000. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of citrus orchards. Water users charged $1 per hour for 
use of plant. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
5, 1910: 

Current used: 23.00 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 17.15 
kilowatt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 237. 

Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute, 893; pump, 25 strokes per minute. 

Head: Cylinder 60 feet below the pump. Total static head about 147 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant is located in the center of an area of citrus orchards in a nar- 
row depression between two hills. The location is not favorable for an abundant 
water supply. Water is pumped through about 1,000 feet of pressure pipe to a con- 
crete flume on the hillside at the upper edge of the citrus orchards. The flume is 
well constructed and carries the water perhaps a mile to the most distant orchard 
irrigated. A new plant more favorably located for water supply has been built by 
the company but was not in operation when visited. Detailed operation statistics 
were not available. 

38. SUNNYSIDE WATER CO., PORTERSVILLE, CAL. 

Location.— SW. \ sec. 14, T. 21 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 50-horsepower Westinghouse motor; belt-connected to two No. 30 power- 
head Ames double plunger pumps with 24-inch stroke. Three wells, bored, 12 inches 
by 100 to 150 feet; water 30 to 50 feet below the surface. 

Building cost— Complete plant, $6,000 (?). 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of orange orchard five times. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 5, 
1910. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 547. 

Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute, 898; pump, 22 strokes per minute. 

Head: Cylinder 100 feet below the pump. Total static head, about 180 feet. 

Remarks. — Only meager information as to this plant could be secured at the time 
the brief test was made. 

39. J. H. LEACH, PORTERSVILLE, CAL. 

Location. — SW. i sec. 23, T. 21 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 2-horsepower vertical Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine; belt-connected to 
a 2-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 6 inches by 80 feet; water 
10 feet below surface. 

Building cost.— Engine, $120; pump, $35; well, $75; complete plant, $250. 

Use in 1910.— As auxiliary to gravity supply for 3 acres of garden, about 300 hours 
aggregate run . 

T es t. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant November 7, 
1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 0.15. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 23. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 400 (87 explosions); pump, 1,060. 



pumpim; tests. 159 

Head: 4-foot lift; ID-foot suction. Total static head, 23 feet. 

Remarks. — This is a fair type of the small plant suitable for use in truck gardens. 
The suction pipe was evidently leaking air somewhat and the efficiency was low. 
Nevertheless the plant was doing good service as an auxiliary to a gravity water 
supply. A renewal of the suction pipe would probably be required to place it on 
an efficient working basis. 

40. J. J. ANDERSON, PORTERSVTLLE, CAL. (1910). 

Location. — Sec. 23, T. 21 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 6-horsepower Victor vertical distillate engine; belt-connected to a 6-inch 
Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump, catalogue capacity 400 gallons per minute. Well 
bored to 90 feet but filled to 43 feet depth. 

Building cost. — Engine and pump, $400; complete plant, $500. 

Use in 1910. — Supplement to gravity supply on 17.5 acres of orchard and garden. 

Test . — The following results were obtained, during a test of the plant on November 
7, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 0.92 (owner's record). 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 406. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 370. 

Head: 9-foot lift; 22-foot suction. Total static head, 31. 

Remarks. — This plant was installed in July, 1910, and used successfully during the 
season as a supplement to a gravity supply. The plant was unhoused and not in the 
best of condition. A loose belt caused excess of slip and consequent loss of efficiency. 
Pump speed could not be measured. The cost per acre, though high, is not unreason- 
able. 

41. BADGER IRRIGATION CO., NEAR EXETER, CAL. 

This plant is especially noteworthy for the high lifts. Three primary pumping 
plants lift the water from wells for the irrigation of low lands and to a reservoir from 
which a fourth plant lifts it to supply laterals at elevations of 66, 200, 247, 300, and 412 
feet above the pumps. The maximum irrigation lift is about 490 feet. As originally 
planned there were laterals at elevations of 530 and 586 feet above the level of the 
pumps, but these were abandoned. An orange orchard of 190 acres is irrigated by 
the system, which is reported by the company to have cost $18,000. The irrigation 
season is about five and a half months, including parts of April and October. 

The following data as to the primary plants were furnished by the company: 

1. 7.5-horsepower, type C, Westinghouse induction motor, operating at 110 volts; 
6-inch Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump (catalogue capacity 400 gallons per 
minute). 

2. 15-horsepower, type C, Westinghouse induction motor, operating at 110 volts; 
Hooker double-acting deep-well pump. 

3. 7.5-horsepower, type C, Westinghouse induction motor, operating at 110 volts; 
W. T. Garrett single-acting deep-well pump. 

The three plants use about 28.4 horsepower and supply about 2 second-feet of water- 
The fourth or high-lift plant is equipped with a 75-horsepower, type C, Westing, 
house induction motor operating at 2,000 volts and two W. T. Garrett double-acting 
triplex pumps. These pumps are reported to give a discharge of 1.5 second-feet at 
all lifts up to the 300-foot level and 1 second-foot at the 412-foot level. The pulley 
arrangement is such that speeds suitable to the various lifts may be given to the pumps. 
The cost of irrigation is necessarily very high with a plant operating under such an 
unusual head, but it appears to be warranted by the returns from the citrus crops 
grown. The company officials state that they are satisfied with the results obtained. 



160 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

42. TOM POGTJE, EXETER, CAL (1309). 

Location. — SE. £ sec. 2, T. 19 S., R. 26 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 5-horsepower General Electric induction motor, operating at 220 volts; 
belt-connected to a Garrett single-acting deep well pump, 8-inch cylinder. Well 
bored 12 inches by 112 feet, water 36 feet below the surface. 

Building cost.— Pump, $540; well, $100; complete plant, $1,400. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of garden, orchard, and alfalfa. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
9, 1910: 

Current used: 5.05 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 3.8 
kilowatt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 179. 

Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute, 1,167; pump strokes per minute, 29. 

Head: Cylinder 60 feet below the pump; lift 13 feet. Total static head, about 60 
feet. 

Remarks. — This plant was giving satisfactory results. 

43. P. W. PRESTON, EXETER, CAL. (1907). 

Location. — E. £ NW. \ sec. 2, T. 19 S., It. 26 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 10-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine, 39-inch pulley; belt- 
connected to a 4-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch pulley. Well, 
bored, 8 inches by 90 feet in pit 35 feet deep; water 36 feet below the surface. 

Building cost. — Engine, $550; pump and pipe, $151; well and pit, $200; complete 
plant, $1,000. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 26 acres of citrus fruits. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test of the plant on 
November 9, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.00 (approximate). 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 320. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 274 (105 explosions); pump, 1,320. 

Head: 37-foot lift; 14-foot suction. Total static head, 51 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant was giving good service. It is of sufficient capacity to irri- 
gate a considerably larger area than it serves, but the cost per acre is warranted for 
citrus culture. 

44. L. W. SHAW, EXETER, CAL. (1910). 

Location.- -W '. | SW. 1 SE. i sec. 35, T. 18 S., It. 26 E., Mount Diablo base and 
meridian. 

Plant. — 8-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 28-inch pulley; belt-connected 
to a 3^-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 7-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 
of 250-300 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 10 inches by 90 feet; water 36 feet below 
the surface. 

Building cost.— Well, $300; complete plant, $1,000. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 15 acres of oranges and about 4 acres of alfalfa. About 
800 gallons of distillate used. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
9, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 0.875. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 220. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 263; pump, 1,004. 

Head: 31-foot lift; 24-foot suction. Total static head, 55 feet. 

Remarks. — The efficiency of this plant was only fair. The pump was underspeeded, 
but even under this condition the water was drawn down so far as to create a rather 



PUMPING TESTS. 161 

large suction head. The machinery was apparently in good condition, the faults of 
the plant being in design. The pump La too high above the water level and the pulley 
size not in proper ratio. 

45. MR. BRISCOE, LINDSAY, CAL. (1910). 

Location. — NE. \ sec. 30, T. I!) S., R. 27 E., Mount, Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant.- -3-horsepower General Electric induct ion mot or direct -com km 'tod to a 2-inch 
type I* Krogh horizontal centrifugal pump, catalogue capacity of 100 gallons per 
minute. Well, bored. 10 inches by 80 feel, filled up to 51-foot depth. 

Building cost. — Pump and motor, $125; well, $300; complete plant, $900. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
10, 1910: 

Current used: 3.59 horsepower (from power eompany's bill), equivalent to 2.68 
kilowatt hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 116. 

Speed, revolutions per minute, 1,800. 

Head: 28-foot lift; 18-foot suction. Total static head, 46 feet. 

licmarks. — The power consumption at this plant is unreasonably high, with conse- 
quent low efficiency. The cause of excessive power use was not apparent. 

43. O. S. GARD, LINDSAY, CAL. 

Location.— NW. % sec. 31, T. 19 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 3-horsepower Bullock motor direct-connected to a 2-inch Eclipse horizontal 
centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 10 inches by 77 feet; pit 32 feet deep. 

Building cost. — Complete plant, $350. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 20 acres of oranges with four months' steady operation. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
10, 1910: 

Current used: 3.47 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 2.59 
kilowatt hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 72. 

Speed, revolutions per minute, 1,700. 

Head: 10-foot lift; 30-foot suction. Total static head, 40 feet. 

Remarks. — The pump and motor were installed so that they could be raised or low- 
ered by sliding in a frame. When tested the pump and motor had been raised nearly 
to the surface for the winter and was practically out of commission. The suction head 
was therefore very great and the indicated efficiency of the plant low. The test does 
not show what the plant could do under normal conditions. 

47. HILL PLANT OF DR. C. B. ROOT, LINDSAY, CAL. 

Locations. — NE. \ sec. 6, T. 20 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 7J-horsepower Westinghouse type C induction motor; belt-connected to a 
double-acting Whitmer deep-well pump. Well, bored, 203 feet deep; water, 60 feet 
below the surface. Discharge through 750 feet of 4-inch pipe. 

Building cost.— Well, $200; complete plant, $1,500. 

Use in 1910. — In conjunction with plant No. 48, used for the irrigation of 70 acres of 
oranges. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
10, 1910: 

Current used: 7.44 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 5.55 
kilowatt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 96. 

98205°— wsp 398—16 11 



162 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute, 1,143; pump, strokes per minute, 32. 

Head: 75 feet above and about 75 feet below the power head. Total static head 
150 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant has been in use several years and has given reasonably satis- 
factory service throughout. 

48. LOW-LEVEL PLANT OF DR. C. B. ROOT, LINDSAY, CAL. 

Location. — NE. I sec. 6, T. 20 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 7|~horsepower Westinghouse type C induction motor; belt-connected to a 
double-cylinder, single-plunger Garrett deep-well pump. Well, bored, 201 feet 
deep. 

Building cost.— Well, $500; complete plant, $1,500. 

Use in 1910. — In conjunction with plant No. 47, used for the irrigation of 70 acres of 
oranges. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 

10, 1910: 

Current used: 7.92 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 5.91 
kilowatt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 161. 

Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute: 1,165; pump strokes per minute, 28. 

Head: 25 feet above and about 75 feet below the power head. Total static head 
100 feet. 

Remarks. — This is a well-kept plant that gives satisfactory results. The pumped 
water is distributed through cement pipe. 

49. ROEDING & WOOD NURSERY CO., EXETER, CAL. (1909). 

Location.— NE. \ sec. 14, T. 19 S., R. 26 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 40-horsepower Western distillate engine; belt-connected to a No. 28 power 
head, single-acting Pomona deep-well pump. Well, bored, 15 inches by 100 feet; 
cylinder 68 feet down; 86 feet to main aquifer. 

Building cost. — Engine and pump, $3,370; building, $250; well, $500. Complete 
plant about $4,120, exclusive of iron-pipe line nearly a mile long. 

Use in 1910. — For irrigation of 13- acres of alfalfa and 5 acres of citrus nursery at plant 
and about 160 acres of olives and nursery at high levels; being used as supplement 
to gravity supply on 100 acres of this area. * 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 

11, 1910. 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.50. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 393. 

Speed: Engine, revolutions per minute, 224 (28 explosions); pump, strokes per 
minute, 18. 

Head: 5 feet above and 38 feet below the pump head, Total static head, 43 feet. 

Remarks. — The plant is designed for operation under widely differing conditions. 
At the plant about 25 acres, chiefly in alfalfa and nursery trees, is to be irrigated. The 
greater part of the irrigable area, however, is located at the edge of the foothills, nearly 
a mile distant. The owners report that at the end of 3,760 feet of 7|--inch pipe the 
total head, including friction, is 173.5 feet, and the pump delivers 1.03 second-feet 
against this head when the engine uses 2.75 gallons per hoar of distillate. An addi- 
tional 1,000 feet of pipe carries the water to a level 150 feet higher, where about 0.5 
second-foot can be delivered. The test made was on the lowest lift, where the opera- 
tion would be least economical. 



. 



PUMPING I BSTS. 163 

50. LAUREL COLONY, TULARE, CAL. (1903). 

Location. — Sec. 36, T, ins.. R. 23 E., Mourn Diablo base and meridian. 
Plant. LO-horsepower Westinghouse type C induction motor, direct-connected to 
a 6-inch Krogh California centrifugaJ pump. Well, bored, L0 inches by 165 feet. 
Building cost. -Well, $1, 800: machinery, $1,000; complete plant, 13,000. 
Use in 1910. Irrigation of 320 acres, chiefly alfalfa land. 
Test. The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 

14, L910: 

Current used: 14.00 horsepower, equivalent to-10.4 kilowatt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 910. 

Speed, revolutions per minute, 1,100. 

Bead: Lift, 10 feet; suction, 20 feet. Total statitJ head 30 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant is noteworthy for the relatively high cost of the well. It is 
located in an artesian belt and (he water rises within 1.5 feet of the surface. Flow- 
ing wells are not unusual in the locality. The plant is operated for the benefit of sev- 
eral settlers. The costs per acre are low. the capacity duty being about 1 second-foot 
to 160 acres. The motor is run at considerable overload. A second plant of about the 
same size would be required to produce maximum yields from the entire area covered. 

51. DR. M. S. CHARLES, TULARE, CAL. (1910). 

Location. — Sec. 4, T. 20 S., R. 24 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 3-horsepower Westinghouse type CCL induction motor; belt-connected to a 
2-inch Golden West horizontal centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 5 inches by 70 feet. 

Building cost. — Motor and transformer $210; complete plant, including 460 feet of 
4-inch pipe, $518. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 32 acres of garden and alfalfa land. 

Test. — The following results were obtained dining a test of the plant on November 

15, 1910: 

Current used: 4.5 horsepower (from company's test) equivalent to 3.36 kilowatt- 
hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 135. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Motor, 1,702; pump, about 1,490. 

Head: 9-foot lift; 16-foot suction. Total static head, 25 feet. 

Remarks. — The apparent efficiency of this plant is very low. The machinery watf 
ew and the installation seemed to be first class. The consumption of power had been 
tested by the company shortly before test on November 15. A ground on the electric 
circuit or an obstruction in the discharge pipe would seem to be tha most likely diffi- 
culties. 

52. G. H. HAUSCHILDT, TULARE, CAL. 

Location. — Sec. 5, T. 20 S., R. 24 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 3-horsepower Westinghouse type CCL induction motor, direct-connected 
to a 3-inch Krogh California horizontal centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 10 inches by 
850 feet, 

Building cost.— Well, $1,480; complete plant, $2,020. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigated 40 acres of alfalfa four times with about 6 inches of water. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
16, 1910: 

Current-used: 3.42 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 2.55 
kilowatt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 180. 

Speed, revolutions per minute, 1,700. 



164 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

Head: 10-foot lift; 19-foot suction. Total static head, 29 feet. 

Remarks. — Discharge is through 150 feet of 6-inch wood-stave pipe to a 0.5-acre 
reservoir, which is used to store water at night and afford a larger irrigation head. 

53. F. S. McADAMS, TULARE, CAL. (1910). 

Location.— -SW . \ sec. 13, T. 20 S., R. 23 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 10-horsepower General Electric induction motor; direct-connected to a 
5-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 12 inches by 163 feet; cased. 

Building cost.— Well, $325; complete plant, $845. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 90 acres of alfalfa. Planned to irrigate 120 acres. Oper- 
ated continuously from April to August 1. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
18, 1910: 

Current used: 9.7 horsepower (10.25 horsepower from power company's bill). 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 720. 

Speed, revolutions per minute, 1,172. 

Head: 6-foot lift; 22-foot suction. Total static head 28 feet. 

Remarks. — This is one of the better class plants and is operated so as to give relatively 
low costs per acre irrigated. 

54. W. J. McADAMS, TULARE, CAL. (1909). 

Location.— SW. i sec. 18, T. 20 S., R. 24 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 15-horsepower Westinghouse type CCL induction motor, direct-connected to 
a 7-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump. Wells, bored, 12 inches in diameter, one 
90 feet and the other 127 feet in depth. 

Building cost. — Pump and motor, $750; complete plant, $1,400. 

Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 200 acres of alfalfa. Operated continuously for 6 months. 
Additional area of 40 acres being prepared for irrigation. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
18, 1910: 

Current used: 19.21 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 14.34 
kilowatt-hours per hour. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 1,450 (approximately). 
* Speed, revolutions per minute, 846. 

Head: 10-foot lift; 19-foot suction. Total static head, 29 feet. 

Remarks. — This plant is typical of the best practice for irrigation of alfalfa. 

55. L. G. MARTIN, TULARE, CAL. (1910). 

Location. — NW. I sec. 18, T. 20 S., R. 24 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. 

Plant. — 10-horsepower Alamo distillate engine, 24-inch pulley, belt-connected to 
a 5-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump, 8.5-inch pulley. Well, bored, 12 inches 
by 110 feet. 

Building cost. — Well, $220; engine and pump, $650; complete plant, $900. 

Use in 1910. — Installed in late summer and used for watering stock and irrigating 
40 acres of alfalfa. Will be used for irrigation of 80 acres of alfalfa. 

Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 
18, 1910: 

Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.45. 

Water pumped, gallons per minute, 695. 

Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 264; pump, 695. 

Head: 9-foot lift; 17-foot suction. Total static head, 26 feet. 

Remarks. — This is a new plant and the operation shows rather low efficiency. The 
vacuum gage showed loss of head in the suction pipe, probably due to some obstruction . 



GBOTJND WATEB IN BAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. J 65 

TABU&ATED RESULTS OF PUMPING TESTS. 

In Table 34 the data derived from the preceding pumping |>lanl 
tests and information collected at the time the tests were made are 
assembled so as to present in concise form the chief factors of engi- 
neering interest in each case. 

The number in the first column corresponds to the number used in 
the description of each plant and its test. 

The second and third columns give the discharge in gallons per 
minute and in second-feet, generally as determined by test, though 
in a few specified cases as reported by the owner or operator of the 
plant. 

The fourth column, of drawdown, shows the extent to which the 
water level in the wells was lowered during the tests. Generally 
about 20 minutes was required to reduce the water level to an eleva- 
tion that remained constant thereafter with uniform discharge from 
the plant. 

The capacity of the well (column 5) is derived from the third and 
fourth columns, being the discharge in second-feet divided by the 
drawdown in feet. This capacity is only an average figure, however, 
as each succeeding foot of drawdown probably causes an increasingly 
greater yield of the well. 

The total static head represents the difference in elevation between 
the water level in the well during operation and the level at which 
the water is discharged from the pumping plant. 

The useful water horsepower is derived from the discharge and the 
total static head, being the discharge in pounds per second (the dis- 
charge in second-feet X 62.3) multiplied by the total static head in 
feet, divided by 550 (the number of foot-pounds per second in one 
horsepower). 

The column giving the length of irrigation season in days is based 
on what information could be secured as to the customary period 
during which crops were irrigated in the several localities examined. 

In the ninth column is shown in terms of days of continuous opera- 
tion the length of time the plants were operated in 1910. Comparison 
of this column with that preceding indicates that in general the plants 
were operated for only a small part of the irrigating season. This 
shows one of the principal sources of the high cost of irrigation by 
pumping, for the fixed costs on a pumping plant that is lying idle 
mount up rapidly and result in a high cost per acre actually irrigated. 

The columns giving capacity of plant show respectively the amounts 
of water that could be delivered if the plants were operated 80 per 
cent of the irrigation season, and the amounts that were actually 
delivered in 1910. These columns show, like columns 8 and 9, that 
the large proportion of the time that the plants are idle is a principal 
factor in making the cost of pumping higher than is necessary. 



106 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

The figures of column 12, giving the acreage irrigable with maxi- 
mum draft of 1 second-foot to 80 acres, is obtained from the figures 
in column 3, the actual discharge in second-feet. The acreages ac- 
tually irrigated in 1910 are given in column 13. 

Column 14, giving the duty of water in 1910 (obtained from the 
figures of columns 11 and 13), is of principal interest in showing the 
variation in irrigation practice among individual ranchers. The 
figures also indicate roughly the amount of water actually delivered 
to the land for irrigation. 

The item of fuel oil has been expressed in three ways — the amount 
of fuel oil (distillate) used per hour by the engines tested and the 
corresponding costs per day and per useful water horsepower per day. 
The cost of fuel oil was taken as the cost delivered at the plants and 
ranged from 8 cents to 13 cents per gallon of distillate in various 
parts of the valley. In the lower part of the table under the same 
columns the electric power consumed at motor-driven plants is 
shown. In general these plants were not provided with meters and 
no means for testing power consumption were available. The results 
shown, therefore, are taken in most instances from power companies' 
bills. It is the custom of the power companies to test the plants 
from one to three times during the irrigation season and to charge 
for power used on the basis of the maximum amount consumed dur- 
ing their tests. 

The figures of the building cost represent the cost of the com- 
pleted pumping plants. The total costs are based on the most relia- 
ble information obtainable, including statements of owners and of the 
companies installing the machinery. From these total costs the 
cost per acre with maximum draft of 1 second-foot to 80 acres and 
the cost per acre irrigated in 1910 are obtained from the correspond- 
ing columns of the area irrigable. 

The annual cost of depreciation, renewals, and repairs is based on 
the assumption that for a distillate plant these costs will amount to 
15 per cent per year on the cost of the machinery and for a motor- 
driven plant to 8 per cent per year on the cost of the machinery. 
These values, if anything, are lower than the actual and do not depend 
very largely on the amount of use given the plant during the year, 
for the depreciation of machinery may be as great during periods of 
nonuse as during periods of use; in other words a plant may "rust 
out" as quickly as it would "wear out." There is of course a consid- 
erable variation in the sum total represented by the three items, 
depending on the care given to the machinery. In order to make a 
comparison of the various plants, however, a uniform percentage was 
used throughout, though the actual cost of all the machinery was 
not exactly that recorded in the notes on the tests. The item of 
taxes was not included with the other fixed charges, since a reliable 



TABULATED II KS II IS OF PUMPING TBSTB. 1G7 

value (o be applied was not determined upon, but in other similar 
studios taxes bave been figured as a per cent per year on the firsl 
cost. 1 [nteresl on the investment, another element of fixed charges, 
in the amount of 6 to 8 per cent on the first cost is also omitted from 
the items in the table. 

In computing the annual cost of fuel (or current), labor, and 
lubrication, the fuel or current cost for the first column — involving 
SO per cent continuous operation — is obtained from the figures of 
length of irrigation season in days and the fuel or current cost per 24 
hours. For the fuel or current cost with operation as in 1910, the 
figures of continuous equivalent operation in days in 1910 and the 
fuel or current cost per 24 hours are used. To the costs of fuel alone 
thus obtained, 2 cents per hour of operation for distillate plants, 5 
cents per hour for the steam plant, and 1 cent for motor-driven plants 
was added in order to cover the charges of labor and lubrication. 

The figures of total annual cost of maintenance and operation are 
obtained from preceding data. The total costs are in each case the 
sum of the annual cost of fuel (or current), labor, lubrication, depre- 
ciation, renewals, and repairs. As has been previously stated, the 
items of taxes and interest on investment have not been included, 
but they probably would add an annual sum equal to about 7 to 9 
per cent of the total building cost. The costs per acre are these 
total costs divided by the appropriate values for the area irrigable 
or irrigated. The costs per acre-foot of water pumped represent the 
total costs divided by the capacity of the plant in acre-feet per 
season. The total cost per acre-foot of water per foot of static head 
is the total cost per acre-foot of water pumped, divided by the static 
head. 

The last column indicates the relative efficiency of the plants in 
percentages. To determine the figures in this column it was assumed 
that a gallon of distillate should produce 8 horsepower hours of 
energy in a plant of fairly good design. A comparison on this basis 
of the amount of fuel oil used with the useful water horsepower 
developed gives the efficiency. For example, in plant No. 1, 0.96 
gallon of distillate per hour yielded 1.68 useful water horsepower, 
but on the basis of 1 gallon of distillate per hour to 8 useful water 
horsepower 0.96 gallon should yield 7.68 horsepower. The efficiency 
is therefore 1.68 divided by 7.68, or 22 per cent. For the steam plant 
it was assumed that 1 gallon of crude oil should produce -2.5 horse- 
power. Similarly, for motor-driven plants, comparison of the horse- 
power of electric energy used or paid for with the useful water 
horsepower developed gives the efficiency. 

1 Smith, G. E. P., Ground-water supply and irrigation in the Rillito Valley: Arizona Univ. Agr. Exper. 
Sta. Bull. 64, p. 209, 1910. 



168 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

SUMMARY OF PUMPING TESTS. 

The irrigator is sometimes apt to consider only the actual expenses 
of operation of a plant when figuring on the cost of pumping water. 
The cost of irrigation by pumping, however, includes properly both 
the cost of operation and all fixed charges, such as interest on the 
investment, depreciation, taxes, and repairs. 

In the descriptions of the individual pumping plants tested, atten- 
tion has in several instances been called to one or more of the specific 
factors that render the plant a relatively expensive source of water 
supply. In summarizing the results of the tests these factors may 
properly be mentioned again and their effects on the cost of irrigation 
emphasized. 

Most of the pumping plants in San Joaquin Valley are well housed, 
but this important matter is not always properly attended to. The 
rapid depreciation of pumping as well as other kinds of farm machinery 
if not taken care of is very real, and depreciation is an important 
factor in the cost of irrigation water obtained from wells. 

In the tabulated results of pumping tests the depreciation charge 
has been combined with those for renewals and repairs, the total of 
the three being taken as 15 per cent per year for distillate plants 
and 8 per cent per year for motor-driven plants. These figures are 
believed to be conservative, since in similar tests by others the depre- 
ciation charge alone for gasoline plants has been taken as from 10 
to 12 or 15 per cent and for motor-driven plants as from 6 to 7 or 9 
per cent. 1 It will be noted that in the tabulated data summarizing 
the tests in San Joaquin Valley, interest and taxes have not been 
included with the other fixed charges. They probably should be 
taken as adding to these charges about 7 to 9 per cent per year on 
the value of the plant. 

The tendency throughout the valley is to install pumping machinery 
capable of more work than is required of it. This custom may be 
in part attributable to the sellers of the machinery, who are of course 
desirous of making large sales; but the installation of large plants 
appears also to be followed as a matter of convenience in operation. 
The irrigator finds it easier to run a large pumping unit for a few 
hours than to accomplish the same amount of irrigation with a smaller 
plant requiring perhaps several days to supply the same acreage with 
water. The interest on the greater amount of capital tied up in the 
larger plant and the increased amount that must be charged to depre- 
ciation form very considerable items in the total annual cost of irri- 
gation, however. In places where a larger plant has been installed 

1 Le Conte, J. N., and Tait, C. E., Mechanical tests of pumping plants in California: U. S. Dept. Agr. 
Office Exper. Sta. Bull. 181, pp. 51-52, 1907. 

Smith, G. E. P., Ground-water supply and irrigation in the Ttillito Valley: Arizona Univ. Agr. Exper. 
Sta. Bull. 64, p. 200, 1910. 









Annua 




fuel( 




labor 




cat la 


Annual 




cost of 




depre- 




ciation, 




renewals, 




and 


With 81 


repairs. 


per con 
oontinu 




ous 




opera- 




tion. 


$4S 


$24 


64 


251 


49 


20: 


96 


29; 


115 


29. 


128 


42. 


64 


351 


153 


37 


81 


25: 


100 


29. 


200 


73 


37 


2i: 


100 


30. 


39 


24; 


180 




96 




i si" 


59: 


210 


1,32 


; 250 


1,38 


350 


2,46 


i 98 


5? 


] 285 


80 


\ 25 


20, 


1 60 


67- 


105 


75 


l 100 


67 




f 1.54' 


1 460 


\ 88 




I 1,54 


2 450 


1,28 


40 


48 


1 16 


20 


I 128 


2,93 


2 40 


92 


2 130 


2,48 


a 80 


38 


5 20 


14 


3 20 


12 


1 35 


23 


1 60 


51 


3 80 


1,20 


1 50 


21 


1 190 


81 


i 186 


85 


| 10 ° 


1,55 


3L 240' 


"*"l,'20 


1 800 


3,55 


4. 70 


30 


i 36 


23 


4 16 


22 


4 J 70 

|\ 70 


42 


44 


plates to cu 


stomary 


£ase in fuel 


consume 


py supply u 


tilize 1 di 


snt installec 


1 late in s 


[ 

apply on 101 
ne raised fc 


) acres of 


r the wii 


Ipump is in 


its norm 



Table 34. — Summary of pumping-plant data. 





! 

Discharge. 




'epeeii V 
pel 11 HI 

lool ol 


Total 
head. 


Useful 


1 

Length 

gation 
season. 


Con- 


Capacity of plant 
season). 


Area irrigable 
(acres). 


Duty of 

in 'mm. 

feel per 


Power. 


Building cost. 


Annuel 
cost of 

reneuals 


Annual cost ot 
fuel (or current), 
labor, and lubri- 




T 


lal annua 


cost of maintenance and operation. 




1 




Distillate. 


With 80 
and m 
to 80 a 


per cent continuous operation 
aximura draft of 1 second-foot 


With operation as in 1910. 




Test No. 


Gallons 
minute. 

256 
380 

868 
605 
914 
406 
425 
444 
444 
672 
500 
249 
299 
406 
6,750 
765 
450 
400 

1.000 

I.I Ml 

165 

106 

320 

220 

f M81 

i 393 

I '225 

1,320 

300 

108 
2, 160 

610 
2.3011 

till! 

185 

720 

1.450 

5(15 

38 

210 

172 

( '" 

i .■. ,",:.' 

• '!' 


Seeond- 

leet. 


,-iiir..i- 
lent of 

1910. 


With 80 

per cent 

ous op- 
eration. 


With 

M'i'iYu ion 

1910. 


With 

draft of 
1 second- 
foot to 
80 


With 

,,|H-i lti.,.H 

as in 


Gallons 
per hour. 


Cost per 


Cost per 

21 hours 

iul e.eier 
horse- 


Total. 


Cost per 

irriesiMe 

(trail of 
f. 

80 acres. 


Cost per 

irrigated 
in 1910. 


With 80 

.'■!'. Mi'i','.','.' 

tion. 


With 

in Piin. 


Total. 


Per aore. 


Per acre- 
water 
pumped 


Per aero 
fool 01 

per foot 

of <talie 


Total. 


Per acre 


Relative 

effi- 
ciency. 
Per acre- 
Per acre- foot of 
foot of water 
water per foot 
pumped, of si alio 




0.57 
.85 
.59 

\w 

.95 

.99 
1.50 
1.11 

!(17 

12!8 

i!oo 

.89 
1.74 
4.24 

1155 
.37 
.051 
.90 
.71 
.49 

1.03 

;.io 
2.94 

i 81 
.VI 2 

.30 

.40 
1.60 
3.23 

!o85 

'A 

.53 

l.oi-i :,il 

in 

.26 

'.2\ 
.36 


Felt. 
18 
10 
15 

15 
10 


loss 

.039 

:090 
.204 


26 
21 
27 
27 

28 
26 
48 
27 
27 
28 
27 

35 
23 
3.9 
30 
32 

42 

50 
23 

31 
51 
55 

20 
25 
28 
20 

30 
25 
29 

79 

50 

146-402 
60 
10 
40 


1.68 
2.02 
1.81 
5.93 

2! 65 

3. 00 
4.70 
3.41 
1.52 
2.65 
2.36 
5.67 
5.80 
3.64 
2.83 

22'. 1 
22.4 

2! 09 
.13 

3.17 
4.13 
3.06 

4^27 
16.7 

13.7 

1.51 
.68 
15.3 
3.18 
23.8 
6.90 
.S5 

.s.10 
10.6 
11.3 

_.C8 

8.91 
12.1 
4.84 
8.80 
25-50 
2.73 
1.35 
.73 

4.07 


120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 

120 
120 


5 -I 

n'.~ 

30 

4.8 

11:2 
9.0 


109 

113 
368 
257 
389 

180 
188 
188 
497 
105 
128 
171 


8.3 
9.6 

10.2 

45 

80 

7.5 
21 
18 


46 

47 
154 
108 
163 

76 
79 
79 
209 
44 
72 


10 
20 
57 

2.5 

14 

60 

40 
2.3 
6.0 
3.5 

77 


2.1 

lio 

2.2 
1.4 

3!o 
1.5 

4.5 


0.96 
1.00 
.75 
1.20 
1.20 
1.83 
1.50 
1. 57 

{ ll 
.80 
1.25 
.97 


$2.07 
2.16 
1.62 

^59 
3.95 
3.24 

2. 16 
2.59 

2. 98 
1.73 
2.70 
2.10 
3.41 


Si. 23 

1.07 
.90 

:5o 

.61 
1.22 

'.72 

!87 

li02 
.89 
.60 


$385 
495 

1,250 

l^OO 

550 

1,300 

900 

\ 2,000 

325 

1,000 

1,500 
760 


$8.40 
7.30 
8.50 

9i 30 

1. 60 
17 
8.20 

7.40 


896 
99 

62 

300 
220 
93 

15 
20 


$48 
54 

49 
96 

128 

153 

81 
100 
200 

37 
100 

39 
180 

96 


$245 

202 
295 

425 
357 
371 

295 
720 
212 

248 


S19 
15 

36 
92 

16 
43 

24 


$293 
309 

410 
553 
421 
524 
3.14 
395 
920 
249 
405 


$6.40 
4.50 

2.m 

:)'. 49 
:.. 80 
6.90 
4.20 

4.40 
5.70 

4. ill) 


$2.70 

loo 

1.411 
2.511 
2.90 
1.80 
2.10 
1.S0 
2.40 
L70 


$0,104 
.090 
.082 

.1)40 

i051 

.11:15 

!066 
.078 
.007 
.100 

.nan 


$67 
69 
67 
132 
207 
149 
80 

105 


14 

(1.70 
6.60 
3.00 

32 
14 
20 


$8.10 
7.20 
6.60 
2.90 
2.60 
7.80 

10.70 
9.30 
5.80 


$0.3 
.34 
.24 
.11 
.01 

.'l! 
.22 






























22 

8 
13 
16 
13 
111 
18 
10 


15 
20 

13 


.043 
.124 
.070 
.094 
.085 

:037 
.083 












19 and 20 


6.3 

17.7 
9.7 


150 
6.9 

ie!o 

142 


4!o 
1.8 


14 
08 
25 
22 


418 
51 

150 
64 

202 


10 
22 
26 
18 
2.60 


2.80 

7.40 
.). 60 
4.O0 
1.40 


.10 

iio 

i36 


/ 32 


SI:::::::.:::::::::: 


26 
30 




.113 

'.051, 
'.085 
































































25 6 


180 

180 

180 
270 
270 
270 
270 
270 
270 
270 
270 

ISO 

120 
120 

180 
180 
180 
180 

180 
270 
270 
270 
270 
270 

270 ' 

270 
270 
270 
270 


27 
21 
32 
15 

10.4 
13 
15 
42 


251 

497 

1,210 

443 

22 
386 
304 
210 

377 

810 

128 

'400 
1,460 
530 
86 
114 
457 

510 

201 
164 
385 

227 

171 
111 
69 
92 
154 


72 

72 

7.7 
1.3 


71 
139 
339 
193 
124 

60 

8 

144 

114 

78 
165 
141 

80 

235 

54 
112 

128 
258 
202 
14 

01 
144 

240 

42 
26 


60 
100 

9 
17.5 

/185 


1.7 
= 1.2 

2.7 
1.2 
d3.6 

lis 

2.2 


1.61 
3.80 

litf 

1.00 
.15 

i!oo 

2'. 75 
1.50 
2.75 


3.67 

8.66 
9.12 
16.60 
3.48 
3.24 
.47 
2.65 
3.00 
2.64 
6.60 
3.60 
6.60 


1.30 
1.05 
.41 
.74 
.76 
1.55 
3.50 
.84 
.73 
.86 
.39 

^39 


700 
3,200 
3,500 
i;,5nn 

900 
2,500 

500 
1,000 
1,000 

},„ 

3,500 

3,000 

3.000 
3,000 

51S 
2,020 

845 
1,400 
1,300 

900 
3,500 
3,500 
3,500 

is! 000 

1,400 
900 
350 
1,500 
1,500 


9.90 
23 
10 
34 

7.30 
42 
31 

3.50 

13' 


25 

112 

278 
83 
29 

50 

29 

275 
167 

"45""' 

11.40 

no' 

7S 
35 


81 

250 
350 
98 

100 

450 

40 
Hi 

128 
40 

130 

60 
80 
50 
190 
186 

240' 

800 
70 
36 

( 70 


598 

1,320 

1,380 

2,460 

570 

804 

205 

752 
674 

[ 1,540 
8S0 

I 1,540 

1,280 

484 

207 

2,936 

2,485 

117 
120 

1.2112 

S52 
1,557 

'1.202 

3,550 

220 
424 

448 


192 
307 

372 

12 

146 
119 


679 

2J810 
668 
1,089 

857 

2,000 
1.340 
2,000 

1 . 730 

524 
221 

3,1134 

968 

2, ill,. 

.If,:, 

167 

Mil 
326 
575 

'2117 
1,008 
l.u.s 
1,657 

1. 113 
1,3311 

268 
242 
494 

313 


5^0 
18.20 

i.'xo 

9.90 
12, in 

9.50 
25 

7.40 

9.70 
11.711 
8.00 
8.80 

('.. in 
2.90 
7. nil 
4.40 

2.20 
0. 3D 
[•Mil 
13.40 
17.110 
11.50 

"Yf.lHI 

18.10 

1140 
9.30 


1.50 
6.80 
10.60 
1.90 

2. SO 
3.70 
4.50 

2.10 

2.' 20 

2.40 

ii 

1.20 

.71 

.62 
2. Ill 
7.40 
5.00 

^30 

C..3I1 

6.80 ■ 
2. 20 

3. 50 

5. in 
3.40 


.050 

:450 
.001 
.055 

.1137 
.032 

i032 
.950 
.205 
'.042 

:<>22 

i036 
.031 
.037 

ilil-jill 
.037 
.052 
.088 
.031) 


193 
402 
557 
607 
470 
324 

107 
251 
219 


11. 00 
II. 7(1 

lb'' 
5.90 

6. 10 
0.70 
11 


4. 00 

2. 10 
8.40 

42.10 

18 .,11 
4.00 
4.31) 
5.90 


.14 
.13 
.05 

'.OH 
.84 
1.24 
.1.1 
.08 


22 




































11 


.055 
.030 
















































15 

13 
7/20 

is' 

22 

6. 10 

57 
24 

""71 
















'"i" 

20 

20 
12 


.082 

,11.111 
.080 
.100 
.085 
.170 


12.5 


73 


120 

1.5 

18 
730 

40 

90 
200 
177 

10 


.6 


109 

ii' 


559 

13:1 
320 
583 

73s 
087 
1,036 
1,655 


4.70 

; 60 

7.' 21) 
23 
12 
23 
17 


7,0 


.19 






Steam plant, crude oil fuel. 




2- 


14.0 7.60 .5.5 










Electric power. 






4 kw. hours per hour, at 5c. . . 
2 k\v. hours per hour, at 4c. . . 
28 (?) kw. hours per hour, at 3c 
8.6 kw. hours per hour, at 3c . 

49.0 horsepower, at 850 

14.0 horsepower, at S25 

4 ,5 horsepower, at $25 

3. 12 horsepower, at 825 

10.25 horsepower, at $25 

Hi. m horsepower, at 825 

2;ut0 horsepower, at $50 

3.30 horsepower, at $50 

13.32 horsepower, at $50 

16 ill) horse; lower, at S50 

30.10 horsepower, at $50 






5.2 


2.5 


1.7 










.......... 












1,700 

8o'" 

380 

'525 

12l' 

375 


2.3 

5^8 
3.0 

lis 

3.5 


2,490 


2. 40 
23.311 
8.20 
6.50 
4.40 


.'03 
.02 
.03 
.30 

:o3 

.04 










120 
180 
210 
54 
130 
210 
210 












109 
2S5 

1,200 

ITS 
707 

1.555 


30 
















55 




1.7 


.247 






21 
















20 


.0)5 


40 














epower,atS50 


38 








170 


500 


190 


2.7 






3,540 


4,340 


23 


8.00 


.06-.02 . 








22 
13 

26 






















'power, at $50 






















120 

180 
180 


76 

128 


} " 


1.9 




} « 


203 
415 

439 


219 
435 
509 




.s.sii 
6. in 
4.(10 


.14 










17.44 horsepower, at 850 



























.d 39; 'and 13.5 cents' for lest numbered 32. With SO 
t per acre per annum fur a ra-ou •■( ii'u .lavs ami 3.0 
lams are used for on-hard in nation, chiefly for citrus 
uty of water wilh su perceui emit humus o'peiatiou of 



■ strum! liue I 



<i Pn.puse 1 to irrigate in 1911. Plant 

<* Test^: reported by owner. 

/ I ':,(■ ! ;i- supplement Id gravity sup] 



speeded up, '■]■ In;' ( 



> result:; shown hi 



- the first half of the s 



i movable frame 



t therefore very great a 



intltj ui ...Mid pumped 



l hw.s i hau thai s 



si"M M w:\ OF PI \i i'i \<; T1STS. 169 

than is needed to supply the acreage watered the error can of course 
be remedied if more land can be furnished with water. The same 
result will of course be accomplished cither by bringing new land 
under irrigation or by supplying from one plant lands that have been 
watered by two or more pumping units each of which has been 
operated only a small part of the time. The advantage of coopera- 
tion in reducing the cost per acre of irrigation is shown in the plants 
listed as tests Nos. 31 and 35. 

Although theoretically the pumping system might he only large 
enough to furnish the necessary amount of water if kept running 
continuously throughout the irrigation season, practically the mini- 
mum size of plant is approximately fixed by the necessity of pump- 
ing a stream large enough to flow through the irrigation ditches 
with sufficient velocity to permit its proper distribution. From the 
observations made in San Joaquin Valley it would appear that in 
this region plants of less than 5 horsepower are not efficient in this 
respect, except perhaps in the case of plants used for watering small 
truck gardens. The size of stream that must be thrown in order to 
give proper distribution depends very largely on the character of the 
soil, however. In Sacramento Valley it has been found that " a dis- 
charge of at least 12 gallons a minute to the acre should if possible 
be provided for alfalfa on ordinary loam soils in tracts of 40 to 200 
acres, with larger capacities for smaller tracts, and slightly smaller 
capacities for larger tracts." 1 

Although in some regions economy is obtained by the use of smaller 
plants pumping into reservoirs from which a sufficient discharge can 
be maintained during periods of irrigation, this practice has not been 
followed in the San Joaquin, and the cost of reservoir construction 
probably would more than counterbalance the saving in cost of 
pumping equipment under the conditions of irrigation that obtain. 

In localities where pumping plants are installed as auxiliaries to 
surface water supplies the adaptation of proper size of plant to the 
area irrigated can not be adhered to; for in such instances a relatively 
large amount of water may need to be pumped during intervals of 
shortage in the ditch supply, and machinery capable of furnishing a 
given quantity of water in a limited time may be required. Such 
conditions obtain mainly in places where high-class crops are raised, 
however, which can profitably bear the relatively high cost per acre 
of pumping water. An example of this is furnished in the plant of 
W. E. Bunker (No. 15). 

In connection with the mistake of installing a larger plant than is 
needed for the area irrigated may be mentioned the installation of a 
plant having greater pumping capacity than the well can supply. 

1 Bryan, Kirk, Ground water for irrigation in the Sacramento Valley, Cal.: IT. S. Geol. Survey Water- 
Supply Paper 375-A, p. 38, 1915. 



170 ' GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

Considerable loss in efficiency may develop in such cases, either 
simply from excessive draw down, which makes the pumping lift 
greater than need be, or from the entrance of air into the pump, 
whose suction is thereby impaired. Losses of efficiency directly trace- 
able to leakage of air were noted in tests Nos. 8 and 39. Such over- 
taxing can usually be overcome by enlarging the well or by sinking 
one or more auxiliary wells connected by tunnels or by suction pipes 
to the pump intake. 

Although pumps in good condition may lift water about 28 feet 
under suction, a lift of about 20 feet has been found in practice to be 
the maximum economical limit. Centrifugal pumps and the cylin- 
ders of reciprocating pumps should therefore be placed not higher 
than this distance above the water level when pumping. Examples 
of low efficiency produced in part at least by excessive suction lifts 
are furnished by plants Nos. 8, 21, and 30. Enlargements or bell- 
mouths on the ends of intake and discharge pipes are found to reduce 
the friction loss of head at entrance and discharge points and thus 
slightly to increase the efficiency. Likewise, the elimination of unnec- 
essary elbows and bends in the pipes reduces friction losses. Cases 
where actual obstructions in pipes appeared to be responsible in part 
for the low efficiency were noted in plants Nos. 51 and 55. 

At many pumping plants the end of the discharge pipe is placed 
higher than is necessary. Since every foot in height that the water 
is raised requires a certain amount of work, it is obvious that the 
discharge point should be only high enough to deliver the water into 
the ditch. Flagrant cases of disregard of this principle were not 
observed in the San Joaquin, however. 

The running of a large internal combustion engine at less than its 
load capacity is an important factor in increasing pumping costs. 
Under such conditions, in order to keep down to normal speed, the 
engine misses a number of explosions each minute. Serious loss in 
efficiency may thus be occasioned, as brake tests show that under 
such conditions there is a marked loss in the effective work. This 
loss is due largely to the fact that the power consumed within the 
machine in compression of the charge and in friction losses is approxi- 
mately constant, and hence as the amount of work produced by the 
machine is decreased the energy consumed internally becomes a 
larger portion of the total amount. 1 An especially noteworthy 
instance of low efficiency due to a poorly designed plant was found 
in that of T. R. Hill (test No. 1). The overloading of an engine, 
when normal speed is kept up by feeding an extra amount of fuel, is 
also uneconomical, both because of the 'excessive fuel consumption 
and the strain on the machinery. 

1 Le Conte, J. N., and Tait, C. E., Mechanical tests of pumping plants in California: U. S. Dept. Agr. 
Office Exper. Sta. Bull. 181, p. 72, 1907. 



SUMM \im OF PUMPING TESTS. 171 

Notable variations in speed, either of increase or of decrease 
beyond the normal, result in inefficient service; for every properly 
constructed engine is designed to run under conditions of speed and 

load that are fairly well determined by the size of the engine parts, 
and any great variation in these conditions is hound to he attended 
by loss in efficiency from one or more 4 causes. In electric motors 
underspeeding does not result in notable efficiency loss since the inter- 
nal friction losses are sligbt and a large part (80 to 90 per cent) of 
the power consumed is given out as useful work. Overspeeding, 
however, may necessitate repairs due to the overheating or burning 
out of parts. 

The proper adjustment of feed and ignition in an internal combus- 
tion engine have very great influence on the efficient working of the 
machine. If the ignition is retarded too much, an excessive fuel 
charge is required. By advancing the spark, therefore, to produce 
a certain amount of preignition, the fuel consumption may be cut 
down appreciably. The improper timing of ignition may have been 
the cause of excess fuel consumption in plants Nos. 18, 19, and 28. 

The temperature of the jacket water is a factor that is too often 
overlooked; for if the cylinder is cooled too much, ignition may lag, 
and the same effect will be produced as by a spark too far retarded. 

Too little attention is in many cases paid to the proper oiling and 
adjustment of the various bearings. Injury of course may quickly 
result to them from overheating due to lack of oil, or to running 
too tight, while if too much play is allowed the engine will become 
injured by pounding. Slippage of a loose belt is often the cause of 
poor service, as in tests Nos. 13 and 40, while too tight a belt produces 
an undue strain on the pulley bearings. 

For proper running of a pump, relations of load and speed similar 
to those in an engine must be taken into consideration. The improper 
speeding of a centrifugal pump will cause loss in efficiency because 
if underspeeded the runner will not impart an economic proportion 
of its velocity to the water, and therefore the pump will not lift 
water to its full capacity (tests Nos. 1 and 27) ; or, because if over- 
speeded, the runners will churn or will produce excessive velocity in 
the stream of water, with consequent losses due to excessive friction 
in the intake and outlet pipes (test No. 5). While a centrif- 
ugal pump throws more water when somewhat overspeeded, it 
requires much more power for a given discharge than does a larger 
pump run at the proper speed. As has been previously mentioned, 
overspeeding may also cause marked drop in efficiency by drawing 
air into the pump and impairing its suction. Overspeeding is, how- 
ever, less to be avoided than underspeeding, since the discharge 
drops rapidly with slower rotation. 



172 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



For each rotary pump there is a definite relation between the lift 
of the water and the speed of the pump, for greatest efficiency. The 
proper speed for each lift is usually given by the pump maker, and 
should be closely adhered to for satisfactory results both in the 
amount of water lifted and in power economy. 

In reciprocating pumps underspeeding may in some cases produce 
undue diminishing of the discharge through failure of the valves to 
open and close promptly. Overspeeding often results in the breaking 
of sucker rods or the loosening of pump foundations, with conse- 
quent throwing out of alignment and increased friction losses. 

The proper size and speed for the pump will be determined by the 
amount of water to be discharged and the lift. The engine or motor 
should then be adapted in size to give the necessary power. By 
means of the proper-sized pulleys or gears the suitable working speed 
for both pump and prime mover can be obtained. The proper size 
of prime mover and pump for given lifts and discharge are given in 
some manufacturers' catalogues or will be supplied by the service 
departments of the firms. Consultation with these departments 
will often prevent costly mistakes in the installation of a plant. 
For the larger plants special design to suit the conditions of oper- 
ation will generally be profitable. The following tables may be of 
use in some cases, however, in aiding in the choice of a suitable com- 
bination of prime mover and pump. 

Table 35. — Time required for irrigation with pumps of various sizes, assuming 3 acre- 
feet as duty of water per acre per annum. 





Water 
required 
per an- 
num. 


Time required for pump to raise tabulated quantities of water, a 


Area to be 
irrigated. 


3-inch 
pump, 
capacity 

225 
gallons 

per 
minute. 


3^-inch 
pump, 
capacity 

300 
gallons 

per 
mmute. 
1 


4-inch 
pump, 
capacity 

400 
gallons 

per 
minute. 


5-inch 
pump, 
capacity 

700 
gallons 

per 
mmute. 


6-inch 
pump, 
capacity 

900 
gallons 

per 
mmute. 


7-inch 

pump, 

capacity 

1,200 
gallons 

per 
minute. 


8-inch 
pump, 

capacity 
1,600 

gallons 
per 

minute. 


10-inch 
pump, 

capacity 

3,000 

gallons 

per 

minute. 


Acres. 
5 


Acre-feet. 

15 

30 

45 

60 

90 

120 

180 

240 

300 

360 

480 

600 

720 

840 

960 

1,080 

1,200 

1,440 

1,680 

1,920 

2, 280 

2,640 


Hours. 
360 
720 
1,080 
1,420 
2,160 
2,880 
4,320 


Hours. 


Hours. 


Hours. 


Hours. 


Hours. 


Hours. 


Hours. 


10 


542 
814 
1,080 
1,630 
2,170 
3,260 
4,340 














15 


610 
814 
1,220 
1,630 
2,440 
3,260 
4,070 
4,880 












20 












30 


697 
930 
1,400 
1,860 
2,320 
2,790 
3,720 
4,650 


542 
723 

1,080 
1,440 
1,810 
2,170 
2,890 
3,620 
4,340 
5,060 








40 


542 
814 
1,080 
1,360 
1,630 
2,170 
2,710 
3,260 
3,800 
4,340 
4,880 






60 


610 
814 
1,020 
1,220 
1,630 
2,030 
2,440 
2,850 
3,260 
3,660 
4,070 
4,880 




80 




100 




542 


120 






650 


160 






868 


200 








1,080 


240 








1,300 
1,520 
1,730 


280 










320 










360 












1,950 


400 












2,170 


480 














2,600 


560 














3,040 


640 
















3,470 


760 
















4,120 


880 
















4,770 

















Capacities taken from manufacturers' catalogues. 



SIMM A in OK PI' M PING TESTS. 



173 



Table 36.- Engine horsepower, cost of pumping plant, annual fixed charges, and cost 

•per hour of operation for pumps operated against various sialic hiatls.'i 



Static 
hoad. 


Size of 
pomp. 


Engine 
horse- 
power. 


Cost of 

pumping 
plant. 


Annual 

fixed 

charges. 


Cos) per 

hour of 
operation. 


Feet. 


Inches. 








Cents. 


20 


3 


3 


SHOO 


|59 


(1.7 




;;.'. 


4 


3(10 


72 


7.6 




4 


5 


120 


85 


9.1 




5 


s 


600 


r_>r> 


11.9 




6 


10 


770 


L62 


13. 1 




7 


15 


1,050 


2 IN 


17.2 




8 


20 


1,320 


271 


22. 2 




10 


35 


1,920 


398 


30.9 


25 


3 


4 


350 


70 


7.3 




3* 


5 


410 


83 


8.0 




4 





480 


99 


10.1 




5 


10 


720 


149 


13.1 




6 


15 


990 


205 


16.2 




7 


18 


1,150 


238 


20.9 




S 


25 


1,480 


307 


27.3 




10 


45 


2,250 


467 


49.3 


30 


3 


4 


360 


71 


8.3 




3i 


6 


470 


95 


9.3 




4 


8 


590 


121 


10.5 




5 


12 


840 


173 


15.3 




6 


18 


1,110 


229 


18.8 




7 


20 


1,280 


264 


24.7 




8 


30 


1,660 


343 


32.4 




10 


50 


2,430 


502 


58.8 


35 


3 


5 


420 


83 


9.0 




3* 


6 


480 


96 


10.5 




4 


8 


600 


122 


11.9 




5 


15 


960 


197 


17.5 




6 


18 


1,120 


230 


21.9 




7 


25 


1,450 


298 


28.5 




8 


35 


1,840 


379 


37.4 




10 


60 


2,660 


549 


68.3 


40 


3 


6 


480 


94 


9.3 




H 


8 


600 


121 


10.5 




4 


10 


720 


146 


12.1 




5 


18 


1,080 


220 


19.7 




6 


20 


1,230 


251 


24.7 




7 


30 


1,620 


332 


32.3 




8 


40 


2,010 


413 


42.4 




10 


75 


3,000 


618 


77.8 


45 


3 


6 


530 


104 


10.2 




3| 


8 


660 


132 


11.5 




4 


10 


790 


159 


13.4 




5 


18 


1,170 


238 


21.9 




6 


25 


1,500 


306 


27.6 




7 


30 


1,740 


356 


36.1 




8 


45 


2,300 


472 


47.5 




10 


75 


3,170 


649 


87.2 


50 


3 


8 


640 


126 


10.0 




3-1- 


10 


780 


155 


11.5 




4 


12 


910 


182 


14.6 




5 


20 


1,290 


261 


24.1 




6 


25 


1,510 


307 


30.4 




7 


35 


1,920 


392 


39.9 




8 


50 


2,470 


506 


52.5 




10 


100 


3,760 


773 


96.5 


55 


3 


8 


650 


127 


10.8 




3| 


10 


790 


156 


12.4 




4 


15 


1,030 


206 


15.9 




5 


25 


1,460 


295 


26.3 




6 


30 


1,690 


343 


33.3 




7 


40 


2,100 


428 


43.7 




8 


50 


2,480 


507 


57.8 




10 


100 


3,770 


774 


106.0 


60 


3 


8 


660 


128 


11.5 




3i 


10 


800 


157 


13.4 




4 


15 


1,040 


207 


17.2 




5 


25 


1,470 


296 


28.5 




6 


30 


1,700 


344 


36.1 




7 


45 


2,270 


462 


47.5 




8 


60 


2,710 


553 


62.8 




10 


100 


3,780 


775 


116.0 



o Cost oi pumping plant is exclusive of wells and casing. Fixed charges are 8 per cent of cost of pumping 
plant plus 14 per cent of cost of machinery. Cost of operation is cost of fuel at 10 cents a gallon plus 2 cents 
an hour for labor and lubrication. 



174 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

From the average rated capacity for each size of pump, obtained 
from manufacturers' catalogues (Table 35), and the lift, the neces- 
sary water horsepower is obtained from the formula given on page 165, 
which may be a little more simply expressed thus : 

Total static head in feet X discharge in 

TT f , t gallons per minute 

Useiul water horsepower = ' 7 

o, Jo / 

A plant efficiency of about 43 per cent, determined mainly from 
experimental tests of good plants, has been applied to these values of 
water horsepower to obtain the figures of required engine horse- 
power for Table 36, the nearest standard size of engine above the re- 
quired horsepower being taken in nearly every case. The sizes of 
engine needed are larger than those given in similar tables in cata- 
logues of pumping machinery; but they are believed, from results 
observed in actual experience, to be approximately correct. 

The cost of pumping plant includes only the cost of engine, pump 
and fittings, and the housing. Since the cost of engine and pump 
varies somewhat according to the make and the cost of housing 
varies with the style of building used, the three items have been 
combined into the averages presented. The prices used for the 
machinery, however, are average list prices for the indicated sizes 
of distillate engines and centrifugal pumps, and the cost of housing 
is based on actual examples. This latter item is taken as about $50 
for the smaller plants, increasing for the larger sizes by about 10 per 
cent of the additional cost of the machinery. Attempt has not been 
made to determine the average cost of well and casing, since these 
are such variable quantities that averages would be of no special 
significance. In some places the cost of the completed well is rela- 
tively small, while in other places it may equal the cost of the re- 
mainder of the plant. 

The annual fixed charges have been computed as 8 per cent of the 
cost of pumping plant plus 14 per cent of the estimated cost of engine 
and pump alone. While this is a somewhat different basis of estimate 
from that used in calculating the fixed charges of Table 34, and 
includes allowance for interest and taxes, it is believed to be fair and 
to give approximately the same results. 

The cost per hour of operation is based on the probable amount of 
distillate used per hour, at 10 cents per gallon, plus 2 cents per hour 
of operation for labor and lubrication. The duty of distillate is 
taken, as the result of numerous tests, at one-eighth gallon per 
horsepower per hour developed. In the table this is of course not 
the same as the horsepower "size" of the engine, which is adapted 
only approximately to the actual power required. The hourly con- 
sumption of distillate for each combination of pump and lift can be 
obtained, if desired, from the last column, by subtracting the labor 



SUMMAin OV ITMI'IMi ll,SIS. 175 

and lubrication cost (2 cents) and dividing by lo (the assumed price 
in cents per gallon). For example, in (lie first case the computed 

distillate consumption is 0.47 gallon per hour. From this figure other 
calculations based on different costs per gallon can be made. 

Example. — It is desired to irrigate by pumping a tract of SO acres 
of land to he set in alfalfa. In consideration of rainfall, evaporation, 
and other climatic conditions the area should be flooded during the 



irrigation season with sufficient water in amount to cover the land 3 
feet in depth (equivalent to flooding 6 inches in depth six times during 
the season). The depth to water in neighboring wells is about 20 
feet, and it is desired to raise the water 5 feet above the surface of the 
ground at the proposed pumping plant. The irrigation season is 
about 200 days in length. 

Referring to Table 35, opposite 80 in the first column, we find that 
a 3^-inch pump will require 4,340 hours, or 21.7 hours a day for 200 
days to supply the desired amount of irrigating water; a 4-inch 
pump will require 3,260 hours, or 16.3 hours a day for 200 days; a 5- 
inch pump will require 1,860 hours, or 9.3 hours a day for 200 days; 
a 6-inch pump will require 1,440 hours, or 7.2 hours a day for 200 
days, etc. Now, the depth to water being 20 feet and the lift above 
the surface of the ground 5 feet, a head of 25 feet must be provided 
for in addition to the suction lift. The suction lift should be taken 
at 25 feet unless it be known that a well of great capacity can be 
secured. The total static head, therefore, in this case will be 50 feet. 
In the table on page 173, opposite " 50 " in the column for static head, 
the following information can be found: 

a. 3|-inch pump, 10-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $780: 

Fixed charges $155 

Operation, 4,340 hours at 11.5 cents per hour 499 

Total yearly cost of pumping 654 

Yearly cost per acre 8. 18 

b. 4-inch pump, 12-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $910: 

Fixed charges 182 

Operation, 3,260 hours at 14.6 cents per hour 476 

Total yearly cost of pumping 658 

Yearly cost per acre 8. 22 

c. 5-inch pump, 20-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $1,290: 

Fixed charges 261 

Operation, 1,860 hours at 24.1 cents per hour 448 

Total yearly cost of pumping 709 

Yearly cost per acre 8. 86 

d. 6-inch pump, 25-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $1,510: 

Fixed charges 307 

Operation, 1,440 hours at 30.4 cents per hour 438 

Total yearly cost of pumping 745 

Yearly cost per acre 9. 31 



176 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

e. 7-inch pump, 35-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $1,920: 

Fixed charges 392 

Operation, 1,080 hours at 39.9 cents per hour 431 

Total yearly cost of pumping 823 

Yearly cost per acre 10. 29 

It appears from these figures that the total cost of pumping grad- 
ually increases with the size of plant used. This is because the 
larger plants lie idle a proportionately greater time, while interest, 
taxes, depreciation, etc., accumulate. With the foregoing informa- 
tion in mind, the rancher can proceed to have a well, or wells, bored 
with some definite idea of the sort of plant he will need. The boring, 
digging, or drilling of wells in such manner as to secure the greatest 
flow of water at least cost is a matter subject to wide variation in 
procedure in accordance with local conditions. Let it be assumed 
that a well is bored and the test x shows a flow of 300 gallons a minute 
with a lowering of 15 feet in the water surface. Such a well will sup- 
ply a 3|-inch pump with a suction lift of 15 feet (assuming the pump 
to be placed at the water surface) ; a 4-inch pump with a suction lift 
of about 20 feet; but will not supply a pump of larger size. With 
this well, therefore, the choice is narrowed down to plants a and b. 
It is now possible to revise the estimates because, instead of a suction 
lift of 25 feet, as previously assumed, it is known that the lift will be 
about 15 feet for plant a, or 20 feet for plant 6. The total static 
heads will be 40 feet and 45 feet, respectively. From Table 36 the 
following revised estimates are derived: 

a-l. 40-foot head, 3-i~inch pump, 8-horsepower engine, cost, with 
housing, $600: 

Fixed charges $121 

Operation, 4,340 hours at 10.5 cents per hour 456 

Total yearly cost of pumping 577 

Yearly cost per acre 7. 21 

6-1. 45-foot head, 4-inch pump, 10-horsepower engine, cost, with 
housing, $790: 

Fixed charges 159 

Operation, 3,260 hours at 13.4 cents per hour 437 

Total yearly cost of pumping 596 

Yearly cost per acre 7. 45 

It is seen that plant 6-1 costs $190 more than plant a-l and that 
the yearly cost of pumping will be $19 greater. In view of the lesser 
time required for pumping, the larger plant would probably be chosen 
by most ranchers, but with the foregoing study of the problem, the 
choice could be made intelligently with clear knowledge as to what 
the added convenience of the larger plant will cost. If a still larger 
plant were, for any reason, considered desirable additional wells 
would be required. 

1 Every well should be carefully tested by pumping and its flow measured before a pumping plant is 
purchased. Only in this way can the plant purchased be adapted to the flow obtainable from wells. 



COUNTY NOTES. 

By W. 0. Mendenhall and It. B. Dole. 

SAN JOAQUIN COUNTY. 

GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

San Joaquin County is, with the exception of small areas in Ala- 
meda and Contra Costa, the northernmost of those counties whose 
valley lands belong to the southern division of the great central 
lowland of California. Because of its latitude and its position near 
the gateway that opens to the Pacific, it differs greatly climatically 
from the southern counties of the valley. Its temperatures are not 
so high and do not fluctuate through so wide range (monthly 
averages vary from 46.5° in January to 72.5° in July and August), 
its rainfall is greater, amounting to about 15.5 inches, and its per- 
centage of foggy days exceeds that of Kern, Tulare, and other of the 
southern counties. Furthermore, situated as it is along the lower 
San Joaquin, it includes a tidal section of that stream and a large 
area, called^ Stockton Islands, that is subject to inundation when the 
Sacramento is in flood, and a still larger section subject to overflow, 
except where it is protected by dikes and levees, when floods in the 
San Joaquin and its tributaries occur at the same time as those of the 
Sacramento. The county, therefore, includes a part of that central 
California area, whose problems of reclamation, drainage, and navi- 
gation involve in so complete and fascinating a way all of the phases 
of hydraulic engineering. The rivers must be improved and con- 
trolled for navigation purposes, the lowlands must be protected from 
floods and drained, while the higher bordering parts of the valley 
lands, too dry to produce the more valuable crops although suited 
to grain raising, require irrigation for their fullest development. This 
threefold problem belongs typically to the Sacramento Valley, but 
it requires solution also in that of the lower San Joaquin. 

The Stanislaus Water Co. takes its supply of water from the Stanis- 
laus near Knights Ferry and irrigates an area of several thousand 
acres along the southern border of the county in the Escalon and 
Manteca districts. In the Lodi and Stockton districts the systems 
of the Stockton & Mokelumne Irrigating Co. and the Woodbridge 
Canal & Irrigation Co. supply surface waters to limited areas. Within 
the island district, west and north of Stockton, where reclamation has 
been accomplished by the construction of protective levees, water is 
98205°— wsp 398—16 12 177 



178 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

sometimes admitted within the dikes during high-water periods in 
the streams for irrigation purposes, but as subirrigation is effectual 
throughput the greater part of these areas, surface irrigation is rarely- 
necessary. 

The higher lands of the valley slopes, both along the east and west 
sides, are devoted to grain raising, as some of them have been for 
almost half a century. No water is applied to them. There is no 
uniformity as to practice among the vineyardists, some of them irri- 
gating their vines, others preferring that they be not irrigated. 

FLOWING WELLS. 

San Joaquin County includes the northern portion of the great 
central artesian zone of the valley, but as this zone is less important 
in its northern part, both because of the inferior yield of wells there 
and because of the greater proportion of water of poor quality ob- 
tained from them, there has been relatively little development for 
irrigation purposes or domestic supply. Twenty-nine records have 
been obtained, and these are believed to include all of the flowing 
wells existing in the country districts and nearly all of those in the 
city of Stockton at the time when the records were secured. Only 
six of these supply water suitable for irrigation, and the yield of these 
is small. By far the greater number of the flowing wells have been 
drilled for the gas they yield, but as the water with the g'as is saline 
and therefore not usable for drinking or for irrigation it is allowed 
to waste. 

The few artesian wells that furnish water of good quality not only 
yield small supplies but are expensive because of their considerable 
depth. Those of which records are available are from 975 to 1,200 
feet deep. Wells of lesser depth do not yield flows, and those of 
greater depth, at least in the Stockton neighborhood, yield saline 
waters and gas. Farther west than Stockton, nearer the axis of the 
valley, the water, even from shallow wells, is strongly mineralized. 
It will be realized that under these conditions flowing wells are not 
of value for irrigation in the county, despite the rather large area 
over which flows may be obtained. 

PUMPING PLANTS. 

During the last few years irrigation by the use of pumped waters 
has become an important factor in the development of the east side 
of San Joaquin County. Around Lathrop and French Camp in 
the district east of Stockton and in the country about Lodi, a large 
number of plants have been installed and new wells are being sunk 
and new plants put in operation constantly. 



SAN JOAQUIN COUNT \. 179 

This development is of a most promising type. Most of the plants 
are small and the acreage irrigated by each is limited. This means 
small holdings, intensive cultivation, and eventually relatively dense 
settlement. The average recorded horsepower of 193 plants is only 
6.2. Of the 193 plants 138 develop from 2 to 8 horsepower, while 42 
are equipped with engines developing from 10 to 15 horsepower. 
One hundred and eighty-seven gas engines were in use in 1906, 13 
plants used motors at that time, and 2 were operated by steam. 

One hundred and thirty-seven owners of plants reported a total of 
1,455 acres under irrigation, an average of only 10.6 acres each. The 
cost of 106 of the plants was reported by the owners as $64,983, an 
average cost of $613 each. These facts indicate the small scale and 
individualistic character of the development. 

The power companies charge a uniform rate of 3 J cents per horse- 
power per hour. This is higher than the fuel charge in the gas plants, 
the reported average in 12 plants for the summer of 1906 being 1.45 
cents per horsepower per hour, but labor and installation, both of 
which are heavier charges in the gas plants, tend to equalize the 
difference. Water as developed in these small plants seems to cost 
the users from $1.50 to as much as $3 or $4 per acre-foot. 

Generally water is delivered from the pumping plants to the acre- 
age served through earth ditches, and where the soil is sandy and 
porous this method results in much waste. 

The pumping-plant wells are comparatively shallow, and hence 
are very much cheaper than the deep wells necessary to secure arte- 
sian flows. The average depth of somewhat more than 100 wells, 
taken at random from the records, is about 80 feet. Another group 
of 20 wells average only 40 feet in depth. These latter wells are 
equipped with small pumping plants, developing an average of 5 
horsepower each, and the water which they yield is ample. 

The wells are particularly cheap because it has been found that in 
many parts of the area it is not necessary to case them, or at least 
they need be cased only to slight depths. Twelve pumping-plant 
wells are reported as without any casing; 24 others were only partly 
cased, the pipe in these varying in length from a few joints to three- 
fourths or seven-eighths of the entire depth of the well. 

The windmill has been an important factor in irrigation in the 
Stockton district, and although it has been practically superseded 
by the small pumping plant, it is still used, especially in the vegeta- 
ble garden and fruit districts east and northeast of Stockton. Its 
chief disadvantage, of course, is the uncertainty of the wind. It is 
not unusual to see a well equipped both with a small gas engine and 
a large windmill, the engine being used when the wind fails. The 
wheels used are of wood and of local manufacture, from 18 to 22 feet 
in diameter, and cost complete with the tower from $175 to $200. 






180 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

Much of the gardening and fruit for the San Francisco market is 
in the hands of Italian immigrants, who, after giving the windmill a 
thorough trial, have generally abandoned it in favor of the more relia- 
ble gas engine. 

Irrigation by pumping, of the general type practiced about Stock- 
ton and Lodi, could be extended with great advantage throughout a 
large acreage, now without water, between Mokelumne River and 
Tejon Pass, but to be practiced successfully it will require a different 
spirit from that which as yet largely dominates the West. The pro- 
moting and speculative spirit, the desire to get rich overnight, to 
control large holdings, and to avoid personal labor, will have to be 
superseded by a willingness to be satisfied with sure but moderate 
returns, to be content with small farm units, and to attain personal 
independence through individual effort. It is to be hoped that the 
American citizen of the generations to come will prove willing to 
accept these conditions and that in the future dependence need not 
be placed upon our adopted citizens for detailed development of this 
desirable type. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

The waters that were tested from wells 20 to 40 feet deep on the 
east side of San Joaquin County contain somewhat greater quantities 
of all mineral constituents than those from wells 50 to 1,100 feet deep, 
and though they are low in alkalies and are good for irrigation they 
are rather poor for steaming because of their content of scale-forming 
matter. Water from wells 50 to 900 feet deep is commonly the best. 
Wells around Stockton 900 to 1,100 feet deep yield water somewhat 
higher in sodium and potassium than in calcium and magnesium 
and therefore poorer for irrigation; this characteristic content of 
alkali probably decreases, however, toward the Sierra. Waters from 
depths greater than 1,100 feet around Stockton are unfit for use be- 
cause they are salty, and that condition probably is uniform over the 
entire county. 

No ground waters among Stockton Islands could be tested, but 
according to common report they are bad, which doubtless means 
that they are highly mineralized calcium sulphate or sodium sulphate 
waters with appreciable amounts of chlorides. This would make 
them bad for boilers and poor for irrigation. 

The waters of T. 2 S., R. 4 E., are higher in mineral content and 
poorer for irrigation than those farther east, and many are of the cal- 
cium sulphate type. Around Tracy and Banta wells more than 100 
feet deep yield better water than shallower ones. The change to 
waters of the axial type, or those in which the alkalies exceed the alka- 
line earths, is apparently complete within the limits of El Pescadero, 
where the waters that were tested are suitable for irrigation. Water 



Sou Hi|h.... 

Par- - no 

Moderate 

..do 

Low 

Moderate 



Soi 
Dr. 



..do.... 

..do.... 
..do...„ 



St 



.do.. 
Veryhieh 



^Moderate 

st °::do:::: 

..do.... 



Soi 

Sar 



..do.... 
.do.... 

..do.... 
..do.... 
..do.... 
..do.... 
..do.... 



Na-S0 4 . 
Ca-S0 4 . . 
Na-S0 4 . 

Ca-S0 4 . 

Ca-C0 3 . 
...do.... 

...do... 

...do..., 
...do.... 

...do.... 
Na-CL. 
Na-C0 3 . 
...do... 
...do..., 
...do.. r . 

Ca-C0 3 . 
...do... 

..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 



Bad.... 
...do... 
Poor... 

...do... 

Fair.... 
...do... 

...do... 

..do... 
..do... 

..do... 
Very bad 
Poor... 

Fair 

...do... 
...do... 

...do... 

...do... 

Poor... 
...do... 
Fair.... 
...do... 
...do... 



Fair... 
...do... 
Good.. 

...do... 

...do... 
...do... 

...do... 

...do... 
...do... 

...do... 

Bad... 

Fair... 
...do... 
...do... 
...do... 

Good.. 

...do... 

...do... 

Fair... 

Good.. 
...do... 
...do... 



Southern Pacific Co. 
Pacific Coast Oil Co. 
Southern Pacific Co. 

Do. 

Do. 
Do. 

F. M. Eaton. 

Southern Pacific Co. 
F. M. Eaton. 

Do. 

Do. 
Kennicott Water Softener Co. 
Vv T alton Van Winkle. 
F. M. Eaton. 
D. B. Bisbee. 

Southern Pacific Co. 

F. M. Eaton. 

Southern Pacific Co. 

Do. 

Do. 
F. M. Eaton. 
Kennicott Water Softener Co. 



imping station. 
)0 feet deep. 
,000 feet deep. 



. H. Henderson. 



Citizens Gas Co.. 



L. Gerlach. 

Jacob Ohm 

JohnTrethcvay 

Henrv Pope 

S. B. 'Light 

L. E. Gerlach .. 
A. Sanguinetti. . 
Mrs. S.Bolliger. 



San Joaquin County . 

: irly 

Theo. lnfelt 

George liarbero 

Tli.-... k'ueppc 



R. Jung. 

'iggin. 

Burdett Salmon 

JooWillo 

Mrs. Frank Hutchinson. 
L. A. Gremaux 






G.H. 

J. Uriel!.. 

C. W.Mourey.. 



Table 37.— Field assays of ground waters in San Joaquin County. 
[Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] 



s,yl.' 'J i 



('•.impodo In. Kr,inco-r.. 



C.linno do In. Lioilec es . 



C! [V.n.lm (('Jrinie.). 



Campodelos Fr ni'-i-. is . 



Campo de lo< KiotHee-. 



Campodelos Franceses. 



Tiolonninoil . juliiiI ii i . ■ . 



I "rilj.i., cl qiiiuililieo 



Ca-SO ( .. 



, and 218 feet deep. 



i welkni;., i n (175 feet deep. 



Table 38. — Mineral analyses of ground waters in San Joaquin County, 
[Parts per million exce; 



Determined quantities. 



(ii'i '">,'. 



Computed quantities. 



I i !': - i'T. 



Southern Pacific Co. 
Pacific Coast Oil Co. 
Southern Pacific Co. 



Gas & Electric Co. 



Southern Pacific Co. 



May — , 1S99 
Sept. — , 1910 
July —1900 



} « .. 



Se|:1. 12, 
-T.il> -. 



Moderate. 



Southern Pacific Co. 
Pacific Coast Oil Co. 
Southern Pacific Co. 



' n 

Walton Van Winkle. 

D. B. Bisbee. 
Southern Pacific Co. 
F. M. Eaton. 
Southern Pacific Co. 



aC., corrosive; N. C, 

"Inelioliiio . . -. j . le of ji 

' ' i. . 

d Computed. 



uncertain or doubtful. 



e Arti^iOfi well: proliohlv moie ilem noo feet Oeep. 

I F..UI- well: Oil.-, to o:r, loot deep at electric purapins station. 

,/ Klovoii well. al (in ine ■ i ii.ni. ■.■on M l.liill loci 'loop. 

'• loimkrii wells a i I'll in ■ s »" I" 1,1)11" l'-i" '■'"W- 



180 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY 






SAN JOAQUIN COUNTY. 1S1 



from wells 100 to 500 feet (loop in the territory from El Pescadero to 
wit hin 2 or 3 miles of the foothills could probably be applied to 
crops without harm if proper drainage were arranged, but water from 
wells more than 500 feet deep would probably be no better than that 
from shallower ones. 

Though the water of San Joaquin River is altered in quality by the 
combined effects of ground affluents from the upper west side, seep- 
ago from irrigated lands on the east side, and occasional influxes of 
water from west-side creeks, it is usually low in mineral content and 
fairly clear, and at all times good for irrigation as the analyses made 
by the Geological Survey for two years establish. 

The results of analyses and assays of ground waters in San Joaquin 
County are given in Tables 37 and 38, in which the waters have also 
been classified with respect to their value for domestic and boiler use 
and for irrigation. 






182 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

WELL RECORDS. 

The facts assembled in the following tables and in much of the pre- 
ceding discussion were secured by W. N. White in 1906-7. Practi- 
cally all of the pumping plants and all wells of importance then exist- 
ing were examined and the essential data regarding them were secured. 
In addition enough of the shallow domestic wells in the outlying areas 
were examined to furnish evidence of the depth to ground water and 
to give some indication of its quality. Much more complete evidence 
on the latter point was procured by R. B. Dole in 1910 and has been 
assembled in the chapter and tables prepared by him and appearing 
both in the county notes and in the general discussion. Records of 
a few wells in Alameda, Calaveras, and Contra Costa counties are 
appended. 



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GROUND WATER FN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 1 ( .)7 

STANISLAUS COUNTY. 
GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

Stanislaus County, like Merced, extends entirely across San Joaquin 
Valley, and therefore both east-side and west-side conditions are 
represented within it. The valley in this latitude is contracted 
somewhat, so that its width is greater both to the north and to the 
south than here. 

South of Tuolumne River and east of the San Joaquin, the canals 
of the Turlock irrigation district supply gravity water to a large part 
of the valley; and north of the Tuolumne the canals of the Modesto 
district supply the west-central part of the county from a point 
about 8 miles east of Modesto to San Joaquin River. West of the 
San Joaquin the lower line of the San Joaquin and Kings River canal 
system extends to the vicinity of Crows Landing. Under these canal 
systems much alfalfa is raised, dairying is an important and growing 
industry, and there is an increasing acreage devoted to fruit raising 
and diversified farming. Outside of the irrigated district the greater 
part of the valley lands are in grain, both wheat and barley being 
raised, although here, as in other parts of the Great Valley, the pro- 
duction is less than formerly. Along the San Joaquin the flooded 
bottoms and the neighboring alkali lands are used for grazing. 

Less use is made of ground waters in this county than in any 
other part of the valley. The rainfall is sufficient, so that grain 
raising has been successful in the past, and irrigation has not been 
absolutely necessary in order that the valley lands might be utilized. 
The pressure for irrigation therefore has not been so intense as in 
the more strictly arid sections farther south. Furthermore, the sur- 
face supply is more nearly adequate than in many of the counties, 
and the limits of productivity through the use of the cheap gravity 
waters have not been reached, because the Turlock and Modesto 
districts are not yet fully developed. Because of this large supply 
of surface water and its as yet incomplete utilization little interest 
has been taken heretofore in the development and use of ground 
waters. 

FLOWING WELLS. 

The Survey has records of only five flowing wells in the county. 
These are near the southern boundary, and most of them are west of 
San Joaquin River. Only one, that on the McDermott estate, 
northeast of Newman, is used for irrigation. The others furnish 
supplies for stock. 

Because of the meager development, the limits of the area within 
which flowing waters are to be expected has not been determined 
with certainty. Nor are these limits of as much importance here as 



198 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

farther south in the valley, because the flowing wells will yield rather 
meagerly, their waters will be of poor quality generally, and the flow- 
ing-well area will be confined to a zone of low land along the axis of 
the valley, much of which is subject to overflow and some of which is 
alkaline. 

The settlers along the west side — owners of fertile, alkali-free soils, 
capable of immense production if water could be applied to them, 
but practically limited under present conditions to dry crops — are 
as a matter of course deeply interested in the possibility of securing 
irrigation water from any source. The streams that flow from the 
west-side hills toward the valley are wet-weather streams of slight 
flow and can not be considered as sources of irrigation water. 

The San Joaquin and Kings River canal system may be capable of 
slight extension when irrigation practice on the lands under it im- 
proves; but at best it can serve only a small additional acreage. It 
is probable that pumping systems will eventually be installed to lift 
water directly from the San Joaquin to apply to those west-side lands 
that are within 40 or 50 feet of the low-water level in the river. 
Pumping plants may also be installed in the lower west-side lands to 
pump ground waters, but the lift will be nearly as great as from the 
river and the water will be of inferior quality, since all of the west-side 
ground waters contain notable quantities of salts and some of them 
approach the limit of usability for irrigation. 

PUMPING PLANTS. 

Pumping plants for irrigation were practically unknown in this 
county in 1906, when this investigation was made, but one or two 
being in operation. They are used, however, to supply the stations 
of the Pacific Coast Oil Co., the railroads, and the domestic sup- 
ply for the city of Modesto. Ground waters are accessible with 
moderate lifts throughout the west half of the east slope of the valley, 
and as irrigation progresses under the gravity systems and the water 
plane rises, their development will become increasingly desirable as 
a means of drainage as well as a source of auxiliary or independent 
irrigation supply. That intensive cultivation and careful methods 
will make it as practicable here as it is elsewhere in the valley 
scarcely needs affirmation. 

QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 

Though little land in Stanislaus County is irrigated by pumping 
it is apparent from conditions north and south of this county that 
ground water of good quality can be procured from wells 100 to 
1,000 feet deep in the territory indicated as east of line C'C in Plate 
II (in pocket). Those that were tested average about 300 parts per 



STANISLAUS COUNTY. 199 

million in total solids and 140 parts in total hardness, and nearly all 
are classed as good for irrigation; they would form some scale in 
boilers, but they are not corrosive and would not cause foaming. 
Waters deeper than 1,200 feet are probably salty. As no wells more 
than 200 feet deep on the east side of the county could be tested, the 
composition of the deep waters between San Joaquin River and the 
location shown by line C'C is unknown. Some of the supplies from 
wells 30 to 100 feet deep west and south of Modesto and close to the 
axis are high in chlorides, and those from wells 300 to 600 feet deep 
in Stevinson Colony are salty, as is also that from the 480-foot well 
at Crows Landing. Any artesian waters in Stanislaus County, there- 
fore, would probably be salty and would range from fair to bad for 
irrigation, according to their concentration. 

The west-side waters are irregular in composition, except that all 
contain notable amounts of sulphate. All those tested near Newman 
are highly mineralized sodium chloride waters of poor quality, the 
shallow supplies not being essentially different from those at 300 to 
400 feet. Several waters with carbonate predominating were found 
at Crows Landing and at Westley, but they would also deposit large 
quantities of hard scale in boilers. No supplies that would be con- 
sidered unfit for irrigation were found north of Newman, though the 
artesian supply near Crows Landing is of rather doubtful quality. 
Water from wells 80 to 300 or 400 feet deep west of the artesian area 
could probably be utilized for irrigation. The water from San 
Joaquin River is acceptable for irrigation. 

Tables 40 and 41 indicate the composition and usefulness of the 
ground waters in Stanislaus County that were analyzed or assayed. 



200 



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208 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

MERCED COUNTY. 
GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

Merced County extends entirely across the San Joaquin Valley and 
thus includes both east-side and west-side territory. The gradual 
amelioration northward of the aridity of the south end of the San 
Joaquin Valley becomes noticeable at this latitude; hence, the raising 
of grain without irrigation, which is possible on the east side as far 
south as Fresno County, is usually successful on the west side in the 
northern part of Merced County. 

Irrigation by surface water is accomplished principally by the util- 
ization of San Joaquin and Merced rivers. The lower line of the 
San Joaquin and Kings River canal, which leaves the river near 
Mendota in Fresno County, extends entirely across the west side 
of Merced County and into Stanislaus County. The high-line canal 
of the same system also extends from the southern to within a few 
miles of the northern edge of the county. This irrigation work com- 
mands the larger portion of the west-side plain. The zone of un- 
watered land, between the high-line canal and the foothills, is rela- 
tively narrow. 

The most important east-side system is the Crocker-Huffman canal, 
which taps Merced River about 2 miles below Merced Falls and 
serves an extensive section east and north of the county seat. The 
Stevinson-Mitchell canal heads in San Joaquin River about 14 miles 
southwest of Merced and commands a belt from 3 to 4 miles wide 
between this point and the mouth of Merced River. The principal 
settlement below this canal, the Stevinson Colony, is between the 
lower Merced and the San Joaquin. 

North of Merced River, the Turlock irrigation district extends 
into Merced County from Tuolumne County, in which He the greater 
part of the lands covered by the system. In addition to these major 
systems, there are a number of minor canals along the Merced River 
bottoms. On the whole, however, the county is thinly settled and 
but a small portion of it is under irrigation. Perhaps three-fourths 
of the valley lands are devoted to dry farming, the production of hay 
and grain, or to pasturage. 

The territory east and north of Merced, the Plainsburg and Le 
Grand districts in the southeastern part of the county, much of the 
foothill area, and the greater part of the strip on the north side of 
Merced River are producing hay and grain, while the greater part of 
the area between the main line of the Southern Pacific Co. and San 
Joaquin River is in pasture. Part of this pasture land was at one 
time tilled, but for various reasons, among them the rise of alkali, 
tillage has ceased, and the lands have been returned to pasture. On 
the west side the strip above the canals and between them and the 



MEKCED COUNTY. 209 

hills is generally in grain from Dos Palos northwanl. South of Dos 
Palos this strip is utilized principally as shoe]) range. 

FLOWING WELLS. 

The use of ground waters, like surface irrigation, is more usual in 
pierced than in Madera County, although it has not as yet become 
extensive in either county. The total number of flowing wells in the 
eounty is between 125 and 150. The greater number of these wells 
are shallow, from 100 to 400 feet deep, and their yield is correspond- 
ingly small. As the most of them were drilled twenty or twenty-five 
years ago, not for irrigation but for domestic purposes and for stock, 
they fulfill the function for which they were intended. Of the 130 
or 135 flowing wells of which the Geological Survey has records, but 
15 are reported as used for irrigation, and even these are generally 
used on a small alfalfa patch or garden of but little importance. The 
total yield of all the flowing wells in the county is estimated at less 
than 8 second-feet. That large yields may be secured is indicated by 
the experience of the Crocker-Huffman Land and Water Co. in sink- 
ing a 2,000-foot test well for oil in the spring of 1902 in sec. 15, T. 
7 S., R. 13 E. No oil was found, but this well, although near the 
eastern edge of the flowing well area, as indicated by the shallow 
developments to date, yielded what is reported to have been the 
largest flow in the Merced district. When the casing was pulled the 
flow ceased, doubtless because of leakage into the upper strata. 
Practically all the flowing wells in the county are south and west of 
Merced and Livingston and east of Los Banos and South Dos Palos. 
Though there are many wells of this type 250 to 700 feet deep, they 
are principally for stock and domestic use, as the San Joaquin and 
Kings River canal system supplies plenty of cheap gravity water to 
this district. 

PUMPING PLANTS. 

There are between 40 and 50 pumping plants in the county, most 
of them equipped with gas engines. More than half of these are used 
to develop irrigating waters, and the remainder are used chiefly for 
domestic or town supplies. Grain, fruit, alfalfa, berries, sweet 
potatoes, etc., are the principal crops raised by the ranchers^ who use 
pumping plants for irrigation. They express themselves as satisfied 
with the results and convinced that pump irrigation in many parts 
of Merced County may be made highly successful. 

In the Atwater and Livingston districts, as well as about Plainsburg 

and Le Grand, plants have already proved practicable. Throughout 

much of the east side, to the west, south, and east of Merced, the 

ground-water level is within 20 feet or less of the surface, and where 

98205°— wsp 398—16 14 



210 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

soils are favorable such accessible ground waters may be utilized to 
advantage in pumping operations. 

Merced, like other east-side counties, includes a belt between the 
trough of the valley and the foothills that contains more or less alkali 
because of the proximity of the ground water to the surface. In 
certain parts of this belt the content of alkali has increased in recent 
years as the result of irrigation by means of gravity water supplied 
by the Crocker-Huffman system. In such areas, if the lands are still 
productive, pumping, either as an independent source of irrigation 
water or as an auxiliary to the gravity system, is most to be desired. 
It results in benefit to the community in several ways. In the first 
place it is a method of drainage. The water that is supplied to the 
land is drawn from beneath it. The tendency of the ground waters 
to rise with irrigation is thereby counteracted and the ground water 
level is kept down. In the second place there is no overuse. Each 
acre-foot of water developed costs a fixed sum. Under these con- 
ditions more will not be used than is needed and the usual tendency 
of the ground-water plane to rise with irrigation will not be manifest. 
Again, pumping and the use of relatively high-priced water encour- 
ages intensive cultivation and this again reduces the quantity of 
water necessary. Frequent cultivation and the creation thereby of a 
mulch at the surface has long been recognized as one of the effective 
means of prevention of loss of water by evaporation from the surface. 
Whether lands already damaged by alkali as a result of the applica- 
tion of too much water can be reclaimed and utilized by pumping 
under the economic conditions that now exist is an unsettled ques- 
tion; but there is no doubt that the irrigation of undamaged lands 
whose water plane lies within 20 or 25 feet can be carried out success- 
fully where intensive farming methods are used, and that the rise of 
alkalies in such lands will be prevented. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

The east-side waters from wells 15 to 700 feet deep, ranging from 
100 to 600 parts, average about 200 parts per million in their content 
of mineral matter. Though they differ considerably from each other 
in concentration those away from the trough are generally calcium 
carbonate waters good for irrigation and good to poor for boilers. 
Wells 100 to 1,000 feet deep in the territory indicated as lying east 
of line C'C on Plate II would probably yield water of the character 
just described. No apparent general difference in quality exists be- 
tween the shallow waters and those down as far as 600 or 700 feet, 
though local differences of some magnitude are observable. For 
example, comparison of analyses (Tables 43 and 44) indicates that 
shallow waters at Merced are poorer than the deeper ones. Water 



Mrs. Desmarais 

AnnaD. Ehlers 

Do 

J. F. Chamberlain 

Miller & Lux 

E. B. Fowler 

E. P. Tvler 

August Tetzlaff 

John Furtado 

Do 

California Pastural & Agric 

W. Whelan 

J. L. Gillette 

T. B. Striblin- 

George D. Bliss 

G.L.Hake 



N.C. 


14 

18 


N.C. 


20 


•? 


18 


N.C. 


17 


N.C. 


50 


? 


80 


N.C. 


40 


X. c. 


35 


N.C. 


12 


N.C. 


30 


N.C. 


SO 


N.C. 


140 


N.C. 


140 


N.C. 


100 


N.C. 


SO 


N.C. 


so 



Xll^ll 

Moderate . 


uu 

...do 


-DUU 

Good 




..do 


...do 


Fair 




..do 


Ca-C0 3 .... 


Poor 




..do 


Na-C0 3 ... 


Fair 




..do 


...do 


...do 




..do 


Ca-COs..-- 


...do 




..do 


...do 


...do 




Low 


...do 


...do 




Moderate . 


Na-COs. - - 


Good 


1 


..do 


Ca-COa..-- 


Fair 




..do 


...do 


...do 




..do 


...do 


...do 




..do 


...do 


...do 




..do 


...do 


...do 




..do 


...do 


...do 




..do 


...do 


...do 





1' Ull. 

Do. 
Good. 
Fair. 

Do. 
Good. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

! Fair. 

Good. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 



oC, cc 



Three wells 172, 292, and 320 feet deep. 





Classification. 




Owner. 


] 

Mineral 

:ontent. 


Chemical j <*£»* j «*«£!* 
character. j boilers> L^^. 


Analyst. 


A. J. Hulen 


Octloderate.. 

Oct. do 

MayCigh 

do 

May.do 

Augfoderate.. 

Octligh 

Oct.. do 

Octloderate. . 


Ca-COs.-.-i Fair 

Na-COs.. J... do 

Na-S0 4 ....i Very bad.. 
...do |...do 


Good.... 
...do 

Fair 

...do 

Poor 

Good.... 

Poor.... 
...do 

Good.... 

...do 

...do 

...do 


F. M. Eaton. 




Do. 


Pacific Coast Oil Co.. 

Do 

Do 


Pacific Coast Oil Co. 
Do. 
Do. 


Southern Pacific Co . . 

Miller & Lux 

John Kincaid 

California Pastural & 

Agricultural Co. 
Miller & Lux 


Na-C0 3 ... 

Na-Cl 

Ca-Cl 

Na-C0 3 ... 

...do 


Fan 

Very bad.. 

Bad 

Good 

Fair 

Poor 

Fair 


Southern Pacific Co. 
F. M. Eaton. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


Santa Fe Ry. Co 

Do 


Nov.do 

do 


Ca-CO 


Kennicott Water Sof 
tener Co. 
Do. 


Fresno Consumers 


Jan.[igh 


...do 


Bad 

Go>I 


Fair 

Good.... 


Smith, Emery & Co. 


Ice Co. 
Do 




...do 


Do. 









second at 95 to 220 feet depth. 



98205— WSP 398- 



Table 43.— Field assays of ground waters in Merced County. 
[Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] 



Frank Mnp.van . 



George P. Oleson . 



D. C. Van Clief. 
J.J. Stovin<on.. 
C.W. Smith.... 

\V. T. Wi.onoV.'. 

A.H.Salau 

irge We 




Mill, r a- I,i 



R. R. George 

JohnKincaid 

Miller* Lux , 

L. F. Herrod 

C. J. Pregno 

JohnRoJraan 

Cro-ker estate 

J. F. Chamberlain. 



Anna D. Ehlers. 



.1. F. Cham'ior 
Miller A- Mix. 
E. I). Fowler. 
E. P. Tvler... 



California I'.Klnral \ \.-.i.-i 

W. Win-Ian 

1. I.. Gillette 

T. B. Strii.lin- 

George D. Bliss 



Oct. 13 
Oct. Jl 
Oft. 2", 



i .lo Santa l;i; i 



Determined imnnliiic . 



i 'mil! uii .:■. I iMiimii lis. 



Tot; 1 
hardness 
".(■a'.-O s 



High.. 

Mini,"..'.- 

=£::::: 

Moderate 



Moderate 

\Vr\-"ii"iVli 
McnicrLii.e 
IliKh 

Mm 10T:lIi> 

■■ ',, i 

Hi^ll 



3fc 



Na-CO,. 

Na-Cl... 
< 



Poor 

..do 

Fair 

iTery bad 

r.iur .".'!"! 



tjmliiv 
n.rir.i. 



Miidt-riH' 


Ca-COi... 








...do 


..do 










Na-C'l... 
Xa-Cdi.. 


1 IT', 1 1 1 1* ll _ 


Na-Cl... 


M"ilor;in ! . 




.Au 


!.'i . ' 


H,„ 




Verj high 












...Io 


,.ru 


..do 


...do 




...do 








Ca-C< >.,.... 


-.do 


Na-CO,... 



Fair. 

I 'nor. 



N. C, noncorrosive; 1. corrosion 



6 Artesian well; depth not given, probably i 



; Three wells 172, 292, and 320 t 



Table 44. — Mineral analyses of ground waters in Merced County. 























[Parts per million except 


s olhenvi*!' desii'iiali'il 






















Dale 


Location. 




Determined quantities. 


Computed quantities. 


Classification. 


\nalysl. 


Owner. 


See. 


T. 


R. 


Depth 
(feet). 


Silica 
(810,). 


Iron 
(Fo). 


Cttl- 
(Ca). 


slum 
(Mg). 


(Na+K). 


Car- 

1 "!.' 

lull- If 
U'0,,1. 


flioar- 

li.maio 
indirle 
(HOOs). 


Sul- 
radielo 


Chlc- 
(C™. 


Total 


Seale- 

i'l.i'in in' 

■ 11. in .. 
(s). 


.tag 


Proba- 

i.iliu-u 

(c™ 


Alkali 

C (l" 


Mineral 


Chemical 

character. 


Quality 
boilers. 


irrigation 




Oct. 25,1910 
Ocl. 27,1910 
May 29,1909 


2-1 
32 
39 

39 

25 

10 

Sail)! 


10 S.. 
6S... 

9s".:; 

9S... 
6S... 
10S.. 

ios!! 

ides o 


9E.. 

10 E . 
10 K . 
10 E . 

10 F, . 
HE . 

11 E . 

12 E . 
14 E . 


90 

84 

660 
372 
283 
320 


"'V32' 
c59 
f'36 
c59 


0.05 33 

. 50 i 21 

1 72 


3.5 

6 

5.8 
52 
3.7 

2.1 
33 

9 


6 520 
6 25 
6 44 

22 
53 


48 
Tr. 






26 

3.6 


71 

179 
266 

85 
137 

107 

521 


45 
521 

7 

7.0 
21 

24 
32 

Tr. 


58 
51 
139 

.,.,„ 

372 
181 
22 
35 

125 

12 


.311 
232 

1,616 

1,118 

188 

218 
369 

212 
781 


220 

400 
SS 

300 

450 


40 
140 

840 
S70 

],::;,u 
85 

1, ;oo 

40 1 
70 

120 

60 
140 

10 


N.'C. 

7 
N. C. 
X. C. 

? 

c. 

N. C. 

X. c. 
1 

N. C. 


15 

10 
7.4 
4.5 

45 
4.2 
4.7 

22 

40 

75 
16 

170 


Moderate.. 

"iiisii.".'.::: 

...do 

...do 

Moderate. 

Moderate. 
...do 

Moderate.. 




Fair 


Good... . F. -M. Eaton. 


on 

I'acilii I'o.isl uil l.i. 


Na-COj. .. ...do 


'Fair.'.'.*! 

'i'"o.'.r'.'!!! 
Good.... 
Poor.... 

'Good!!!. 


I'a.-ilit-Coasl nil Co. 
Do. 


Do 

Sooili.'i o I'm lln- l.'o. 

Millci A- Lux 

.' " I .,1 . 

Ijliloiuia I'llslUial ,\: 

A^ricullilval Co. 
Miller A- Lux 


May 2.1,19119 
Aug., 1900 
"il. 14,1910 
"I 31,1910 
Oct. 14,1910 

do 

Nov. 4,1902 


"i.'oo' 

.40 
.15 

.25 


51 

38 

10 

19 
54 


Xl-l.'H:-.. 

xa-n 

Ca-L'l 

X.1-CO1... 

...do 

Ca-CO 

!!!do!!!!!! 


Y. IV 11:11.1 . . 

Bad 

Good 


Si mill, -in I'aducl'o. 
F. M. Eaton. 

Do. 

Do. 




Fair 

Bad 

Go>l 


...do 

...do 

Fair 

Good.... 


Kennicott Water Sof 




17 

19 


88... 
78... 


1G E . 
HE. 

HE. 




Do. 


Fresno Cousiunei -. 
Ice Co. 
Do 


Jan. 17,1910 
do 


m 




Do. 



aC, corrosive; N. C, nourorrosivo; V, 

b Computed. 

e Including oxides of Iron and alumini 



98205-wsp 39S— 16. (To face page 210.) 



-VT TA A ATTTTIT \T A T T T? V 






MERCED COUNTY. 211 

from wells deeper than 700 feet could not be tested, but it is probable 
that borings more than 1,200 feet deep in the valley part of the county 
would yield salty or brackish water. It is reported that a 2,000-foot 
well in sec. 15, T. 7 S., R. 13 E., yielded soft water of fine quality, but 
it is probable that the water was strongly saline; no analyses of it are 
available, and the hole filled after removal of the casing. 

Calcium carbonate waters are found along the east edge of the 
flowing-well area, but the supplies gradually become poorer toward 
the axis of the valley because of increasing predominance of the 
alkalies, so that many of those near San Joaquin River are poor to bad 
for irrigation. Artesian wells 300 to 600 feet deep in Tps. 6 S., R. 9 
E.; 6 S., R. 10 E.; 7 S., R. 9 E.; 7 S., R. 10 E.; 7 S., R. 11 E.; and 
8 S., R. 1 1 E., yield rather highly concentrated sodium chloride waters; 
several wells 250 to 700 feet deep southeast of those townships be- 
tween Chowchilla Ranch and Merced, however, yield carbonate 
waters of good quality; consequently the sodium chloride waters 
may be considered to be confined to a belt near the axis and to be 
most common in the northern part of the belt. Wells 30 to 50 feet 
deep around the mouth of Merced River, where some of the strongest 
salt waters were found in deeper wells, yield good water. 

Water from wells a few miles west of San Joaquin River contains 
appreciable amounts of sulphate, but that constituent is subordinate 
to carbonate in a strip extending from Newman into Los Banos 
Colony midway between the river and the foothills of the Coast 
Range. Though alkaline-earth bases are most commonly predomi- 
nant, and the carbonate character of the water consequently does not 
spoil these waters for irrigation, they are poor for boiler use. South- 
east of that area in Dos Palos Colony and the territory west of it the 
ground waters, being harder and higher in mineral content, are fair 
to poor for irrigation and bad for boiler use. The deep well at South 
Dos Palos yields salt w T ater. The waters immediately northeast of 
Dos Palos Colony are somewhat better in quality. 



212 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 





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15 



226 GKOUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

MADERA COUNTY. 
GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

The valley portion of Madera County is limited on the south and 
west by San Joaquin River and on the north by the Chowchilla. 
Irrigation by surface water is practiced about Madera through the 
utilization of Fresno River water in the early summer, when it is 
available, and about Minturn, near the north edge of the county, 
by the similar use of Chowchilla River water. Both of these streams 
have small mountain drainage basins, so that the flow from them is 
not prolonged late into the summer. 

The extreme western edge of the county is also under irrigation 
from gravity water. The Chowchilla canal heads on the north side 
of the San Joaquin, about 6 miles east of Mendota, and runs north- 
ward, generally parallel to the river, for about 20 miles, commanding 
a strip 5 or 6 miles wide between it and the river. The greater part of 
the rest of the county is as yet grain land or pasture land, intensive 
cultivation being practiced only locally, extensive holdings near the 
river being given over to stock ranches. 

FLOWING WELLS. 

The ground waters have not been drawn upon to any extent for 
irrigation in the developments that have taken place thus far. There 
are about 30 flowing wells in the 350 square miles of artesian water- 
bearing land in the county, and these are practically all used for 
watering stock on the Chowchilla ranch and the Bliss and Miller & 
Lux properties. The total yield for all of the flowing wells is esti- 
mated to be less than 8 cubic feet per second, although at least one of 
the individual wells yields more than 1 cubic foot per second. These 
wells are generally shallow, depths of 200 to 400 feet being usual. 
Some of them are among the oldest in California, having been drilled 
nearly 40 years ago, and though there has been some lessening in yield 
it is doubtless due to deterioration of the casing and to clogging. A 
table of measurements made at different periods is appended: 

Table 46. — Yield of flowing wells in Madera County. 



Location. 


Yield in miner's inches. 


1871 


1884 


1905 


Sec. 21, T. 10 S., R. 14 E 


20 
22 

4 

1.1 


13 
18 
6 
3 
5 
23 


10 


Sec. 4, T. 10 S., R. 15 E 


11 


Sec 25, T. 10 S., R. 15 E 




Sec. 16, T. 10 S., R. 14 E 


12 


Sec. 23, T. 10 S., R. 13 E .. 


2 


Sec. 14, T. 10 S., R. 13 E 




12 









MADERA COUNTY. 227 

The well in sec. 16, T. 10 S., 11. 14 E., was recently cleaned and 
responded with a stronger flow than it had ever yielded before. The 
•fact of a well-maintained pressure and supply is further indicated by 
the strong flows of now wells put down in the vicinity of older 
ones, tapping the same water-bearing beds. 

It is evident that these cheap waters can be developed in large 
volume in the western part of Madera County if it is desired. 

PUMPING PLANTS. 

About 15 pumping plants in the county were in use for irrigation 
in 1906. Most of these are in the vicinity of Borden, where the 
ground-water level lies at a depth of from 10 to 20 feet. The pumps 
pull the water level down locally 15 or 20 feet, so that the total lift 
is usually 25 to 40 feet. Irrigators estimate that under these con- 
ditions they can deliver water for about 75 cents per acre-foot for 
fuel and labor. Even lower figures are given for the best-equipped 
plants. 

Interest on investment and deterioration of plant, of course, 
increase this cost somewhat, yet it is certainly well within the limits 
of profitable use. Practically everywhere within that part of the 
county west of the Southern Pacific, except near the bluffs of San 
Joaquin River, pumping waters are accessible. As the foothills are 
approached, depth to ground water increases and the lift necessary 
in their development increases correspondingly. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

The waters that were tested in Madera County away from the axis 
of the valley are similar to those in the east part of Merced County. 
Wells 20 to 400 feet deep yield water good for irrigation and fair to 
poor for boiler use. The supplies are low in alkali and moderate in 
scale-forming constituents, and wells probably could be bored to 
1,000 feet without striking poorer water. The quality of the water 
from the 1,310-foot well in sec. 32, T. 11 S., R. 18 E., indicates that 
the very deep supplies are salty and therefore unfit for use. 

Flowing wells 240 to 400 feet deep on the Chowchilla and Bliss 
ranches in the northwest part of the county near San Joaquin River 
yield supplies perfectly acceptable for irrigation, and another in 
sec. 34, T. 11 S., R. 16 E., probably between 300 and 500 feet deep, 
yields good water; artesian waters between the 300 and 500 foot 
depths and 9 miles or more from the river are probably satisfactory. 
But the water from the 520-foot well at Berendo Sheds in sec. 6, 
T. 13 S., R. 15 E., is strongly saline and unfit for use either in boilers 
or for irrigation. An artesian water from a well of nearly the same 
depth at Miller pumping station, 4 miles farther west (analysis, Table 



228 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

51, p. 238), is higher in sulphate but much lower in chloride. A 
plugged 96-foot well at the latter place is said to have yielded salt 
water. The 437-foot well in sec. 33, T. 11 S., K. 13 E. (analysis, 
Table 50, p. 238), also yields salt water. These data, with those 
regarding artesian supplies around South Dos Palos, indicate that 
flowing wells near San Joaquin River are likely to strike salt water 
between 400 and 600 feet, and there is no good reason for believing 
that deeper supplies would be any better. 

Tables 47 and 48 give the analyses and assays of the ground waters 
of Madera County that have been examined. 






Owner. 



Alkali 
coeffi- 
cient 

(k) 
(inches). 



Geo. D. Bliss ^ 

Do '° 

Milbr & Lux '" 

Do " 9 

Do I- 2 

Bharon estate 2" 

Mrs. Casey ™ 

Mill j r & Lux ™ 

Do -5S 

Sharon estate i ;" 

Thomas Houlding f? 

H.W.Thomas *» 

Sharon estate 2a 

Pope & Talbot ™> 

A.L.Sayre 5 ? ft 

Do I' 8 

5. Y. Cockrum f» 

6. Shepherd 14t) 



Mineral 
content. 



Moderate.. 

...do 

..do 

..do 

Very high . 
Moderate.. 

..do 

..do 

..do 

..do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

High 

Moderate. 
...do 



Chemical 
character. 



Ca-COs- 

...do 

...do 

Na-COa. 

Na-Cl... 
Ca-C0 3 . 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

.-.do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Na-CI... 

Na-COs. 

Ca-C0 3 . 



Quality 


lor 


boiI»>r^. 


Fair 


..do 


..do 


..do 


Very bad . 


Fair 


..do 


..do 


..do 


..do 


..do 


Poor 


..do, 


Fair 


..do 


Very bad . 


Fair 


...do 



Quality 
for irri- 
gation. 



Good. 

Do. 

Do. 
Fair. 
Bad. 
Good. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Bad. 
Good. 

Do. 



bably more than 300 feet. 



Owner. 



Geo. D. Bliss 

Sierra Vista Vineyard 

Co. 
Southern Pacific Co ... . 
Atchison, Topeka & 

Santa Fe Railway Co. 



Classification. 



Date 



Chemical 
character. 



Oct. i9Ca-C0 3 .... 
....do..--- do 



May, 
Oct. 



...do 

1 Na-COs.... 



Quality 
for boil- 
ers. 



Fair 

Good.... 



Fair... 
...do... 



Quality 
for irri- 
gation. 



Good.... 
...do 



.do..... 
.do.... 



Analyst. 



F. M. Eaton. 
Do. 

Southern Pacific Co. 
Kennicott Water Soft- 
ener Co. 



a q oxides of iron and aluminum. 
°— WSP 39&-16. (' 



Table 47.— Field assays of ground waters in Madera County. 
[Parts per milli on except as otherwise designated.] 





Date, 


Location. 


Depth of 
(tilt). 


Determined quantities. 


Computed quantities. Classification. 


Owner. 


Sec. 


T. 


K. 


Carbon- 


Bicar- 

ni.li.-li' 
(IK'O,). 


Sulplr.iU' 
radicle 
(SO,). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


Total 

hsHilll v 

asCaCO . 


Total 
solids. 


iOiT.lill^ 


Foaming 
(J). ' 


Proba- 
bility ..[ 


i-ooYli- 


Mineral 


ClW31!Cill 

character. 


Quality 

lor 


Quality 

l.,ri,n- 




Oct. 19 


11 

35 
32 

33 
34 

21 

28 

5 
30 


OS. 

10 S. 

12 S. 
12 S. 

io s! 

11 s. 

us! 

12 s! 
12 S. 


14 E. 
14 E. 

14 E. 

i:! ii' 

16 E. 
Hi Iv 
16E. 
llilv 

17 E. 
17 E. 

17 E. 
18E. 

15 K. 

18 E. 

18 e! 

18 E. 


240 

16 
42 

50 
44 

100 






Tr. 










167 
126 
83 

103 
95 

202 

227 

137 
99 


Tr. 

Tr. 
15 
5 

287 

Tr. 

Tr. 

Tr. 

Tr. 

Tr. 
5 
5 

Tr° 
Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 


20 

30 

30 

1,680 

40 

15 

105 
25 
25 
25 
1,160 

15 


76 

69 

100 
140 

148 
192 

186 
98 

.6 


160 
170 

'l60 
180 
210 
170 
140 
310 
400 
300 

100 

2,000 

210 


130 1 ™ 


n!c! 
i 

c. ' 

?_ 

k'. c! 

N. C. 
N.C. 
N.C. 

N.C. 

N.C. 
N.C. 


100 

70 

1.2 
80 
70 
50 
50 
140 

80 
55 
1.8 

HO 


...do 8 .™..'.' 

'.V.iv'.'.'.'.'.W 

:,Lvr.v--.\ 

...do 

...do 

...do - 

:::d ::::::: 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Hfeli 

Moitssih-.. 
...do 


Ca-CO... 

...do 

...do 

N.i-i ■(),... 

'.'.'.io'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

'.'.'.An.'.".'.'.'.'. 

...do 

Na-CI 

N'aJ'Oi... 
Ca-COj . . . 


Pair 

:::do.':::::: 

Fair.'.'.".'."!" 
...do 

Pair. 


Oood. 




140 

120 

140 
150 
190 
120 

200 
220 
240 

150 
120 

soo 

130 


50 

50 

160 

3,200 

20 

10 

160 
70 

50 
1,300 




net. 23 
Oct. 22 
Oct. 23 
Oct. 20 


Do. 
Fair. 
Bad. 










Do. 
Do. 


Mill r A Lux 


Oct. 22 
(HI. 20 
ii.-i. 22 

...do.... 

Ocl. 20 

...do.... 

Oct. 22 
Oct. 21 




Do. 




B. W. Thomas 


Do. 


J'oi>;' A Talbot 


Do. 



























Table 48. — Mineral analyses of ground waters in Madera County. 
[Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] 





Date. 


Location. 


1 
■3 

ft 


Determined quantities. 


Computed quantities. 


Classification. 




Owner. 


Seo. 


T. 


R. 




I 


1 

i 


| 
! 


1+ 

IS 
II 


1 

So 

1" 

| 


L 

Is 


2 

„6 


.§ 

1 


1 
1 


i. 

ll 
I 6 


1 

.11 
I 


j. 

I 1 


i! 

¥ 


Mineral 


Chemical 
character. 


(tualitv 


Quality 


Analyst, 




Oct. 19,1910 


13 


10 S. 
OS. 


14 E. 

15 E. 


400 




0.10 
.20 


22 
13 


5.1 
4.0 


H2 


jj 


90 

71 






25 
12 


200 
147 


125 

95 


40 


N.C. 
N.C. 


80 
80 


Moderate.. 


Ca-COj.... 
...do 


Fair 

Good.... 


Good.... 
...do 


F. M. Eaton. 


''■'>. "■< < 




Southern Pacific Co. 


May, 1900 
Oct. 1,1902 


1? 


[OS. 

US. 


17 E. 

is E. 


90 


«74 
* 63 




16 


11 


8 


» 


81 


24 

5 


27 


226 
181 


155 
115 


60 

711 


N.C. 


60 
40 


Moderate,.. 

...do 


...do 

Na-COj.... 


Fair..... 


...do 


Pl.lUtll.TTI I'LlCiflC CO. 

Kennicott Water Soft- 


SantaFeLatluayi ... 


















3 

































a C, corrosive; N 
98205°— W 398— 16. (To face page 228.) 



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234 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOA&UIN VALLEY. 

FRESNO COUNTY. 
GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

The part of Fresno County within San Joaquin Valley contains one 
of the largest and most intensively cultivated areas as well as a por- 
tion of the most barren territory in the Great Central Valley. The 
rainfall, which gradually decreases in amount from the mouth of the 
Sacramento southward, is so slight in Fresno County that dry farm- 
ing is precarious, hence most of the unirrigated land is also unculti- 
vated and is used only as range. Around Fresno and south and 
east of that city luxuriant crops of great diversity are grown ; raisin, 
table, and wine grapes, peaches, almonds, apricots, and other high- 
priced products are chiefly cultivated, while hay and cereals yield 
good returns in the less thickly settled portions of Kings River delta. 

This rich and populous region is irrigated by gravity water, dis- 
tributed by a network of canals that take their supply from the river. 
These irrigation systems have been fully described by Grunsky. 1 

A later paper, by Lippincott, 2 dealing with the possibility of storage 
and the development of water power on Kings River, embodies the 
results of a close study of the ground waters and their relation to 
alkali conditions by Louis Mesmer and Thomas H. Means. From 
this report (pp. 53, 54, and 85) the following quotations are taken: 

The natural drainage of these lands is toward the southwest, at the rate of about 6 
feet to the mile. The soil is largely granitic sand, and below an average depth of 10 or 
15 feet it is saturated with water. The surface water is somewhat alkaline, and there- 
fore it is not advisable to pump it for irrigation. Water below a depth of 50 feet can be 
considered satisfactory for irrigation. This is based on tests of more than 800 wells in 
the district, some of them being in sections where there were the strongest surface alka- 
line indications. In every case this lower water was found to be good, and when the 
strata near the surface are penetrated it rises to the elevation stated. There have been 
few attempts to pump water in larger quantity than is required for domestic purposes. 
A 2-inch screw pipe, put down to an average depth of 50 feet, landing the pipe on a 
stratum of clay, and then boring through the clay and allowing the water to come in 

from the bottom of the hole, is always ample for this purpose. 

******* 

A few small pumping plants have been installed — one 5 miles east of Fresno, on 
Minnewawa ranch; several around Selma, and two near Wildflower — which yield at 
least 0.5 second-foot to a 7-inch imperforated well not more than 70 feet deep, with a 
lift not to exceed 20 feet in any case. Wells of 10-inch or 12-inch casing should be put 
down to a depth of about 100 feet on an average, and should not be perforated above 50 
feet below the surface, thus shutting off all possible chance of drawing from the more or 
less alkaline surface water. It is probable that wells of tins size and depth would each 

furnish 1.5 second-feet. 

******* 

The result of pumping * * * would be to improve the conditions rather than to 
increase the trouble from alkali. The water table would be lowered sufficiently to 
permit the washing down of the alkali salts, and the salts, instead of being confined to 
the surface layers of the soil, would gradually be distributed * * * and by this 

i U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 18, pp. 39 et seq., 1898. Out of print. May be consulted in 
libraries. 
'U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 58, 1902. Out of print. May be consulted in libraries. 



FRESNO COUNTY. 235 

dilution rendered harmless. The lowering of the water table would be of the great- 

est assist a are to the reclamation of the lands already alkaline, and would probably per- 
mit this reclamation without extensive underdrains. 

Other reports dealing with the problem of alkali and drainage 
have been prepared by Fortior, Maekie, and Cone. 1 In a report by 
Lewis A. Hicks on the " Generation and transmission of electric power 
and installation of pumping plants," included in Water-Supply 
Paper No. 5S, an estimate has been made of the cost of water pumped 
from the ground-water supply by electric power generated on Kings 
River. The estimates are made on the basis of 100 pumping stations, 
each with a maximum capacity of 5 second-feet and an average lift 
of 45 feet, and the probable cost of the water produced is given as 
50 cents per acre-foot when the pumping plants operate 328J days 
per year and $1.43 when the pumping plants operate 100 days per 
year. 

Among the conclusions reached by Mr. Lippincott 2 after a thorough 
investigation of conditions on the Kings River delta are the following 

Pumping plants can be established and operated which will furnish 1,000 acre-feet 
of water per day at a cost not much greater than that now paid for gravity water from 
the canals, to supplement the present summer supply or to extend the irrigated areas. 

The operation of the pumping plants will partially if not wholly prevent the rising 
of alkali to the surface of irrigated lands. 

The rise of the ground waters presents a difficult problem in prac- 
tically all of the delta lands of the San Joaquin Valley, and is merely 
particularly well exemplified in the Kings River delta in Fresno 
County. Mr. Grunsky states that the rise in ground waters since 
the beginning of irrigation is from 10 to as much as 50 feet in parts 
of the delta. One great difficulty that arises in dealing with the 
problem is due to the fact that the injury is done in one locality 
while a large part of the cause may be in another. The lower delta 
lands are the chief sufferers from the rise of the ground waters, 
but the cause is to be found in the irrigation on the higher lands 
as well as on those affected. Over portions of the central arte- 
sian basin and about its borders the ground waters have always 
stood close to the surface, and much of the land was impregnated 
with alkali before there was any settlement in the valley. The effect 
of the irrigation on the higher lands has been to extend this satu- 
rated alkali zone slowly up the slope toward the eastern margin 
of the valley until it has encroached to a certain extent upon lands 
that were valuable. 

Without storage the gravity waters will not serve an acreage 
greatly in excess of that supplied by them now, and the pumping 

1 Maekie, W. W., Reclamation of white-ash lands affected with alkali at Fresno, Cal.: XJ. S. Dept. 
Agr. Bur. Soils Bull. 42, 1907. 

Fortier, Samuel, and Cone, V. M., Drainage of irrigated lands in the San Joaquin Valley, Cal.: U. S. Dept. 
Agr. Off. Exper. Sta. Bull. 217, 1909. 

Cone, V. M., Irrigation in the San Joaquin Valley, Cal.: U. S. Dept. Agr. Office Exper. Sta. Bull. 239, 
1911. 

2 Lippincott, J. B., Storage of water on Kings River, California: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 
Paper 58, p. 98, 1902. 



236 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

plants that must be installed to secure future growth will in addition 
serve a most valuable function in drainage, tending to prevent the 
extension of alkali conditions and aiding in the reclamation of lands 
already containing too much alkali. 

FLOWING WELLS. 

The flowing wells of the artesian belt of Fresno County are sparsely 
scattered over a broad area along the trough of the valley. In 1906 
there were only about 40 of them, ranging in depth from less than 
100 to 1,500 feet, the latter being the depth of one of the wells be- 
longing to the Johns estate, north of Summit Lake. In the district 
adjacent to Lemoore, south of Kings River, small flows, sufficient 
for stock and domestic use, are obtained at 150 feet and less, but 
farther north no shallow wells are found. 

Those on the James and Herminghause ranches, south of San 
Joaquin River, are 600 to 800 feet deep. The flowing wells of the 
larger ranches were bored generally to obtain a supply of water for 
stock at times when none is available in the sloughs and irrigating 
ditches. Irrigation in these large holdings is as yet accomplished 
only during the flood season when abundant gravity water is avail- 
able for lavish use. The possibility of using ground waters for such 
purposes is scarcely considered, although on one of the James ranches 
the water from a flowing well is used to irrigate about 50 acres of 
alfalfa. 

The great west-side plains, with their productive soil, freedom from 
hardpan, good drainage, and favorable situation, are nonproductive 
because of their aridity, and must remain so until water can be applied 
to them. The ground-water plane seems to be nearly horizontal, such 
evidence as is at hand indicating a slope of only about 2 to 5 feet per 
mile; hence it is nearly as far to ground water beneath any part of 
these plains as the plains themselves are above the lowest part of 
the valley. If experiments should prove that these lands will suc- 
cessfully produce citrus fruits or other high-priced, products, then it 
may be that the water can be pumped to them from the valley and 
the venture made commercially practicable despite the great expense 
involved, for it is to be remembered that water is pumped to heights 
of several hundred feet in Tulare and San Bernardino counties in 
localities where it can be used on good citrus lands with an excellent 
margin of profit. 

At present the west slope is almost devoid of permanent residents. 
There are perhaps a dozen settlers between Panoche Creek and the 
Coalinga branch of the Southern Pacific. Sheep camps, occupied 
temporarily in winter, are scattered over them. In the early nineties 
a few seasons of heavy rainfall led to settlement about Huron, and 
two or three crops of grain were harvested, but since then there has 
usually not been sufficient rainfall to mature a crop, and the plains 



FRESNO COUNTY. 237 

have been abandoned to the sheep men, who lease tbe grazing privileges 
from tbe large landholders, notably the Southern Pacific Co, 

QUALITY OP THE WATER. 

The water from wells 20 to 200 feet deep that were tested on the 
east side of the county would be considered entirely suitable for use 
in irrigation except that within about 10 miles of Kings River Slough. 
In general, calcium carbonate waters of moderate mineral content are 
encountered on the east side, but the characteristic alkali alteration 
takes place toward the axis of the valley, and the upper waters are less 
desirable, though not absolutely harmful. According to the tests 
wells 100 to 300 feet deep at Fresno yield supplies containing but 
from 120 to 300 parts per million of mineral matter. The shallow 
wells yield somewhat harder water, and it is reported that the water 
at 600 feet is good, while a 500-foot well 6 miles northeast yields 
water like that of the 100 to 300 foot wells in the city. Doubtless 
wells could be sunk to 1,000 feet without danger in the deltas east of 
a line joining Jamesan and Caruthers, if it were necessary or desirable 
to go so deep as that for sufficient supply. Determinations by means 
of the electrolytic cell of the total solids in 854 ground waters in 
Kings River delta, including parts of Kings and Tulare counties, as 
well as the greater portion of the east side of Fresno County, are pub- 
lished in Water-Supply Paper 58. 1 Most of the wells from which the 
samples were taken are less than 100 feet deep', none in Fresno County 
being more than 300 feet deep. According to these estimates the 
shallow waters are moderately low in mineral content; total solids 
exceed 300 parts per million in only 5 per cent of the samples, and 
only two among several hundred samples tested in Fresno County 
contain more than 600 parts per million of dissolved matter. 

The quality of east-side waters deeper than 1,200 feet is unknown 
for no wells approaching that depth could be tested. As far south as 
Fresno County wells more than 1,200 feet deep strike salt water, but 
south of that county wells as deep as 2,000 feet yield fresh water, 
and it is therefore evident that the final disappearance southward of 
excessive chlorides in the deep supplies takes place somewhere be- 
tween Madera and Corcoran and probably within Fresno County. 
Some of the wells 550 to 800 feet deep near Jamesan Colony give 
brackish water, but this is no indication of the possibilities farther 
east, for water from moderately deep flowing wells elsewhere in the 
valley is better in proportion to the distance of the wells east of the 
axis. The water of the 1,200-foot well in sec. 2, T. 17 S., R. 18 E., 
contains only 135 parts per million of chlorine and 610 parts of 
total solids; the 2,250-foot well in sec. 14, T. 18 S., R. 18 E., con- 
tains 279 parts of chlorine and 872 parts of solids; that is, neither 

i Lippincott, J. B., Storage of water on Kings River, California: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 
Paper 58, 1902. 



238 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

water, though both are near the axis, where the alkali content of the 
waters should be greatest, approaches in saltness or in mineral con- 
tent the very deep waters farther north. 

The west side of the county is mostly semiarid sheep range, but the 
possibility of producing good crops by the use of ground water along 
the lower eastern edge of this west-side plain is being demonstrated 
around Mendota and Huron, and on several isolated farms between 
these settlements. Barley, Egyptian corn, alfalfa, and general garden 
truck are being irrigated by pumping in T. 14 S., R. 14 E.; T. 15 S., 
R. 14 E. ; T. 15 S., R. 15 E. ; and T. 20 S., R. 17 E. The ground water 
out on the plains is highly gypsiferous, more than 60 per cent of the 
total residue consisting of calcium, magnesium, and sulphate. Such 
water is very bad for boiler use because treatment to remove the scale- 
forming constituents and to neutralize the corrosive tendencies 
increases the foaming ingredients to so great amount that excessive 
foaming is likely to occur. The content of alkali is not excessive, 
however, and does not destroy, though it reduces, the value of the 
water for irrigation. The area in which such ground supplies are 
typical extends from South Dos Palos to the Kings-Fresno county 
line between the artesian belt on the east and the foothills of the Coast 
Range on the west. Only one well in it more than 250 feet deep was 
tested, and that well, 1,200 feet deep in sec.ll, T. 20 S., R. 17 E., 
is said to be unproductive below 400 feet; it is probable that any 
waters that may be encountered below 250 feet are similar to those 
above that depth in their essential characteristics. 

Plate III (p. 102) and figure 3 (p. 107) show the relation between the 
location and depth of wells in the artesian area and the sulphate content 
of their waters. Alkali bases are predominant in all of them, but other- 
wise they differ greatly from one another in composition and con- 
centration. Sodium sulphate waters of high total solids are char- 
acteristic west of the slough and sodium chloride and sodium 
carbonate waters east of it within the limits of the artesian area. 
They are fair to very poor for irrigation, and supplies from shallower, 
nonflowing wells are superior for general use. The water of the 2,250- 
foot well in sec. 14, T. 18 S., R. 18 E., comes from one of the deepest 
borings in the valley. The analysis by Eaton shows it to be much less 
strongly mineralized than other supplies west of the slough, but very 
poor for irrigation because of its high content of bicarbonate, chlo- 
ride, and alkalies; it is understood that the water killed crops to 
which it was applied. Its content of foaming constituents is great 
enough to make it undesirable for boiler use. The fact that it con- 
tains practically no sulphate, though all the other waters in the imme- 
diate vicinity are high in that constituent, indicates that the well 
passes through the typical west-side sediments and draws its supply 
from beneath them. Greater quantities of gas than are present in 
the other artesian waters of the county escape from the casing. 



a C, corn c Two wells 45 and 75 feet deep. 



Owner. 



Classification. 



Dat 



Chemical ! OPg®* 
character. bo ^_ 



I 

j Qualitv 
for ' 
lirrigationJ 



Analyst. 



Pacific Coast Oil Co 

J. G. James Co 

F. C. Stillman 

Joseph Mouren 

Sanford & Claverias 

Southern Pacific Co 

Manuel Nunez 

Pacific Coast Oil Co.... 
Southern Pacific Co 

Do 

Do 

Santa Felly. Co 



Nov. 1_ _ . 
Nov. I" 
Nov. 11" " 
do.Th. 



Oct. 1 



) e - 



Fresno Brewing Co 

Do 

Southern Pacific Co 

Miller & Lux 

Pacific Coast Oil Co 

M. F. Tarpey 

Southern Pacific Co 

A. R. Gilstrap 

Southern Pacific Co 

Santa FeRy. Co 



Nov. IS.. 

June — e 
July i 
June 2] 

Oct. i; ; 

Nov. I 

do.; 

June 13 

Oct. 2.'" 

Oct. 31" 

Nov. L _ , Ca -C0 3 

Dec. 31 . Na . co 

Nov. if 

Apr. f 
Oct. f 



Na-S0 4 .. 

Na-Cl... 

Ca-30 4 .. 

...do 

...do 

Na-C0. 3 . 

Xa-Cl... 

Na-SO... 

Ca-C0 3 .. 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Na-COg. 
...do 

Na-S0 4 . 



Ca-C0 3 .. 
...do.... 
...do.... 



Verv bad 

...d6 

...do 

;---do 

I. ..do... 
I Fair... 

Very had 

1. ..do 

I Fair.. 

L.do 

!...do 

L.do 

i Good.... 

! Fair 

I Good.... 

'...do 

1 Very had. 
j Fair.. 

> Good 

! Fair.., 

!— do 

...do- 



Fair.. 

..do.. 
...do.. 

...do., 
i.do.. 
I Good. 
! Poor, 
i Fair.. 
! Good. 
L..do„ 
i...do.. 

...do.. 

1. ..do.. 
...do.. 

I Fair.. 
i Good. 
! Fair.. 
i Good. 
|...do.. 
...do.. 
...do.. 
...do.. 



Pacific Coast Oil Co. 
F. M. Eaton. 

Do. 
Walton Van Winkle. 
F.M. Eaton. 
Southern Pacific Co. 
F. M. Eaton. 
Pacific Coast Oil Co. 
Southern Pacific Co. 

Do. 

Do. 
Kennicott Water Soft- 
ener Co. 
F.M. Eaton. . 
Walton Van Winkle. 
Southern Pacific Co. 

Do. 

Do. 
F. M. Eaton. 
Southern Pacific Co. 
F. M. Eaton. 
Southern Pacific Co. 
Kennicott Water Soft- 
ener Co. 



Leep. 

>n and aluminum. 

aatter, 11 parts. 



98205°— WSP 398—16, 



Table 50. — Field assays of ground waters in Fresno County. 
[Parts per million except as otherwise designated.) 



1 .<'. MlMllKiM 

Ii. I. Nnclulld 


Oct.' 22 

Dc-.' 9 
...do.... 


J. <;, lames Co 

Do 




Nov. 7 




s. 1). Williams 

New ll'.in' school 'lurid 

Pacific Coast Oil Co 


...do.... 

..do.... 

Nov.' in 
Nov. 11 
...do.... 
Nov. 1 
Nov. 8 




Jii.i-]iIi M.mrni 

J. E. Howard 












H. 0. Marshall 

Y.'healville school district 

Joseph Mourcn 

Manuii ::uiic/. 


..do.... 
..do.... 
Nov. in 
...do.... 
Nov, I2 
Nov lo 
Nov. 3 








II II 1 i.hi'i 


..do.. 
Nov. 7 






Nov. 8 

Oct. 23 
















Nov. 1 
...do.... 
Oct. 23 
Oct. 31 
Nov. 3 
Nov. 5 


Jlolmorn Land& Wator Co 
















Nov. f, 
Nov. 4 










SI. (icMt-c Y.'lnei v 


...do.... 


Magnolia school district 


...do.... 


G.E.V/ood 


.do . . 



Depth 
(leel). 



Determined quan'Oic 



ni.'in- 
/jti'i'ij 



Computed quantities. 



Alkali 

...in. i. ■!.;(, 

! <k) 
(inches). 



Quality 
for 



'■' i'.i 



Mm-1lt.ii.''. 

Mii'li'tlir. 



..do 

-'tn.ltT.m.'. 



N. C, noncorrosive; 



uncertain or doubtful. 



I -15 and 75 feet deep. 



Pacific Coast Oil Co.. 

J. u. James Co 

P. C. ! tlllman 

.'tru'ph Moumi. . 



a. it. unstrap 

Southern PaclfloCo. 

Santa FeRy. Co... - 



Table 51. — Mineral analyses of ground ica/rrs in Fresno County. 
[Parts per million unless otherwise designated.] 



Oi.-VTiiiiiini i|ir.inliiic-. 



I'ompuu'd Miiaiilitii-.. 






M 



<j C, i-orrosive; N. C. ,„...„ 

*• Org:uLic;uul vokuilo iiiLtntT, ,;i, ,,„.* 
c Computed. 



corrosion uncertain or doubtful. 



,„::::::;:: 



I V. ells (10 and 6-SO feet deep. 

i'l'iiMm- uxides of iron and aluminum. 
I Organic and volatile matter, 11 parts. 



FRESNO i'OPNTY. 



239 



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GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 






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252 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

TULARE COUNTY. 
GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

Tulare County, lying north of Kern and east of Kings, includes 
the eastern edge of the large central artesian basin at its widest 
part, all of the delta of Kaweah and Tule rivers and a part of that 
of Kings River, and the famous citrus region of the foothills and the 
higher parts of the valley floor about Portersville, Exeter, and Lindsay. 
It also includes, in the southwestern corner, a part of the old bed of 
Tulare Lake and a part of the district submerged during the last 
extremely high water, in 1880. The high water of 1905-1907 did 
not quite reach the Tulare County line. 

Kings, Kaweah, and Tule rivers are the chief sources of such addi- 
tions to the ground waters as are made in this county, as they are 
the sources of the surface waters used by the various canal systems. 1 
Each of these streams has a distinct though rather flat delta, and 
the attitude of the ground-water plane indicates that the stream 
channels and canals along the crests of the deltas are the direct 
sources of the ground waters in the higher portion of the valley within 
Tulare County, and that from these lines of supply the waters per- 
colate toward the lower parts of the valley and toward the areas 
between the deltas. These interareas receive only the slight direct 
supply that is derived from rainfall and from the minor streams that 
drain the foothills. 

Within the artesian basin south and west of Tulare the ground 
waters, although receiving local additions within the county, are 
a part of the general body of ground waters of the central valley, 
stored there as a result of accumulation from all sources during 
centuries past, and are in general slow in motion northward along the 
valley axis. 

FLOWING WELLS. 

In the 365 or 370 square miles of artesian-water land within the 
county there were about 125 flowing wells in 1905, representing 
an investment of between $150,000 and $200,000. Nearly 100 of 
these wells were used for irrigation, and the combined yield of all of 
them was estimated at less than 25 second-feet. The greater number 
of them are 7 inches or more in diameter, while a few old wells are of 
smaller bore. They are most numerous on the Kaweah delta west of 
Tulare and somewhat farther south, west of Tipton and Pixley. 
Pasture lands, alfalfa, gardens, deciduous fruits, and vineyards are 
irrigated by the use of the waters developed. 

1 An account of these systems was published in U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 17 and 18. 
These papers are out of print but may be consulted in libraries. 



ill ai;k COUNTY. 253 

PUMPING PLANTS. 

Irrigation by the use of pumped water is more extensively prac- 
ticed in Tulare County than anywhere else in the valley. This is due 
to the development of citrus culture along the foothills between 
Tule River and Kaweah River, where methods in vogue in the citrus 
districts south of the Tehachapi have been introduced. There were 
in all about 170 pumping plants in use for irrigation in 1905, while 
a number of others were in use for domestic or town supplies. Of 
the total number 125 were electrically driven by power from one 
company and 45 were gas or steam plants. 

These plants are adapted to a wide variety of conditions, some 
of them pumping from wells in which the water stands at the surface, 
and others lifting it from a depth of 100 feet. In the irrigation of 
some of the hillside citrus groves water is forced to heights of several 
hundred feet, usually from a reservoir into which it is pumped from 
the wells. The best equipped plants that overcome lifts of less than 
75 or 80 feet use centrifugal pumps directly connected with motors; 
when the lifts are greater some form of deep-well plunger pump is 
used. 

In the Lindsay district the ground-water level varies greatly each 
year, falling during the pumping season and rising again in the 
winter and spring. To keep the pumps and motors within the 
suction limit during the low-water period, and at the same time to pre- 
vent their submersion during the winter season, some of the ranchers 
have adopted the plan of placing the machinery in a tank. In one 
plant examined, the motor and pump were fastened to a movable 
platform that could be raised or lowered in adjustment to the varying 
ground-water level. 

The Badger Irrigation Co. at Exeter has a particularly interesting 
plant because of the high lift of waters for irrigation. A description 
of this plant is given in the chapter on pumping tests. 

PERMANENCE OF THE GROUND- WATER SUPPLY. 

Most artesian basins are very sensitive to development, old wells 
decreasing in yield as new ones are installed, the shallow wells and 
those about the upper, outer edge of the basin being the first to 
show signs of failure. Diminution in the flow of the less favorably 
situated wells will take place in actual practice long before the basin 
is overtaxed, hence some alarm is likely to be felt and some individual 
loss may occur before the alarm is justified by general conditions. In 
addition to the normal diminution of flow in wells due to physical 
deterioration in casing or to other causes not related to a general loss 
of head and reduction in supply, a new well drilled in the neighbor- 
hood of an old one, or so situated as to draw in part from the same 



254 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

general zone of saturated porous materials, will affect the yield of 
the first, although the combined yields of the two are much greater 
than that of either alone and much less than the supply. 

Until wells are withdrawing water from an area more rapidly than 
it is supplied, even though there may be reduction in the yield of 
individual wells, there is no cause for alarm. It is difficult to deter- 
mine when this point is reached in an artesian basin because diminu- 
tion in flowing wells begins soon after development has begun, but 
when waters are pumped it is less difficult to tell. The continued 
lowering of the ground-water level in a pumped well, through years 
of average or abundant rainfall, with gradually increasing lifts and 
correspondingly increasing costs, indicates overuse. 

A comparison of the flows of a number of artesian wells in Tulare 
County, measured first by the California State Engineering Depart- 
ment in 1885, and 20 years later by the United States Geological 
Survey, indicates, as is to be expected, a general diminution of yield, 
this decrease varying from 40 to 90 per cent. A part of it is undoubt- 
edly due to the installation of new wells in recent years, but much 
of it is to be accounted for by the clogging and filling of the wells and 
the rusting of the casing. In any event the losses are not serious, and 
in view of the immensity of the basin and the large supplies that 
reach it annually, it can not be considered to have approached the 
point of overuse. 

This observation, however, does not hold for some of the areas in 
which pumping is most intense. The lands favorable for citrus 
culture are distributed along a frost-free belt on the lower foothills 
and adjacent high parts of the valley floor. The zone of most intense 
pumping is along the eastern edge of the valley, between the deltas 
of Tule and Kaweah rivers. The ground waters here receive some 
slight accessions from local run-off from the foothills and from minor 
streams that flow out from them, but their principal source is the 
constant supply that sinks in the deltas of the major streams and 
percolates thence slowly in all directions. 

On the deltas themselves, especially along their lower portions, 
where so much damage has been done in recent years as a result of 
over-irrigation, the consequent rise of the ground-water plane and 
with it the alkali, pumping is most helpful; in fact, pumping will 
doubtless be one of the means by which the damage done by over- 
irrigation in the past will be remedied in the future; but in the citrus 
belt of Tulare County pumping thus far has been concentrated upon 
those points remote from the deltas and from the trough of the valley, 
where supplies are least rapidly replenished. As a result there has 
been a noticeable lowering of the water plane in recent years and an 
increased cost of the water product. As a matter of safety to the 
orchards already producing, means should be taken to prevent the 



E. Renard 

Do 

C. H. Slaughter 

J.J. Mull 

J. H. Hauschildt 

Laurel school district. . . 
W.A.Bedford 

F. J. Hesse 

Mis. C. Ranger 

Pacific Coast Oil Co.... 

J. H. Glide 

Cutler Bros 

Frank Siseler 

C. M. Midder 

M. F.Capell 

W. L.Thomas 

A. L. Simmons 

A. Swanson 

S. J. Vincent 

Mr. Leavitt 

H. E. Redman 

City of Portersville 



110 
70 
GO 
35 
11 
45 
20 
20 
15 
25 
30 
35 
35 
25 
12 
16 
35 
80 
4. 
40 
30 

100 
70 



...do 

...do 

...do 

Low 

Moderate. 

...do 

...do 

Low 

Moderate. 

Low 

Moderate. 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

High 

Moderate. 

...do 

...do 

...do 



...do.... 
...do.... 
...do.... 

Na-C0 3 . 
...do.... 

Ca-C0 3 . 

Na-COs. 
...do.... 
...do.... 
...do.... 

Ca-CC-3. 
...do.... 
...do.... 
...do.... 

Na-C0 3 . 
...do.... 
...do.... 

Ca-CC-3. 

Na-Cl.. 

Ca-CC-3. 
...do.... 
...do.... 
...do.... 



..do 

..do 

..do 

Good 

Fair 

..do 

..do 

Good.... 

..do 

..do 

Poor.... 

Fair 

Poor 

..do 

Fair 

..do 

..do 

..do 

Very bad 

Poor 

Fair 

..do 

...do 



Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Fair. 
Good. 

Do. 

Do. 
Fair. 
Good. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Fair. 

Do. 
Good. 

Do. 
Poor. 
Good. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 





Classification. 




Owner. 


' 


1 
i 

o 


1 

■2 

>. 

C" 


Cuo 

| 

■2§ 

Is 


Analyst. 


H. A. Burke 


Ca-Cl 

Na-C0 3 ... 
Ca-C0 3 .... 
Na-COs... 

...do 

Ca-COs.... 
...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


Bad 

Good 

Fair 

Good 

...do 

Fair 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


Fair 

Good.... 
...do 

Fair 

Good.... 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do..... 
...do 


F. M. Eaton. 
Southern Pacific Co. 

Do. 
F. M. Eaton. 
Southern Pacific Co. 
F.M.Eaton. 
Kennicott Water Soft- 
ener Co. 
Southern Pacific Co. 

Do. 

Do. 
F.M.Eaton. 

Do. 

Do. 
Southern Pacific Co. 


Southern Pacific Co 

Do 


J. H. Hauschildt 

Tulare Water Co 

Do 


Santa Fe Ry. Co 

Southern Pacific Co ... . 
Do 


Exeter Waterworks 

Mrs. S. Navarre 

F. Stone 


G. K. Hostetter 

Southern Pacific Co — 



foot wells. 



5°— WSP 39 



Table 53. — Field assays of ground voters in Tulare County. 
[Parts per million' extent as otherwise designated.) 



D. H. Dopkins. 
C. F. Gustavesc 
Augustus Bell.. 

Ke ilv sclioo 

George Clark... 

James Brady... 



.1. F. Chism'. 

L.M.Coko 

S.S. Hough 

Wallace F.ros 

Waukena Development Co.. 

V. H. Carlton 

W. S. Miller 

H. W. Butcher 



I'itv of Mp.iu 
C. A. Canflold 



. Kline. . 

T. W. Carr 

Citv ■>( Hinuua 

E. H. Cranz 

Dank oi Visalia 

\lta t'omslock 

Paokwood s,-hui'|. : i.trut . 
I. D. Reinhardt 



W. A. Bedford.. 

F. J.Hesse 

Mis. C. Ranger.. 
Pacific. Coast Oi) 

J. H. Glide 

Cutler Bros 

Frank Siseler... 
C. M. Middcr... 
M. F. Capell... 
W. L. Thomas . 
A. L. Simmons. 



S.J.Vincent 

Mr. Leavitt 

H. E. Rodman 

City of Portersville. . 



Nov. 17 

Niv, 1.', 
Nov. n. 



Heplhof 
well 
(feet). 



l>H<si. lined quantities. 



I 'Hl'boo- 



sl|l],|,;,l 
(SO, I. 



Total 

it':. CO,. 



i'nill|illlcd MlMlliiii.',. 



hutre- 

lirlii'M i. 



High 



I'tl-CO.,.. 
Sj-l'O, 
Ca-l'o,.. 
Na-COv 



t'a-CO,.. 
Na-OI... 
Ca-f'O,. . 



N. C, noncorrosive 























[Parts per mini 


on except as ot 




designa 


ted.) 




















Date. 


Location. 


1 
1 

9 

Q 


Determined quantities. 


Computed quantities. 


Classification. 




Owner. 


1 


H 




I 

3 


I 


1 

3 


i 


Is 


L 

to 

3 




L 


2 


2 
1 

S 

8 


If 


it 


8 _ 

I 1 


Il 

2-~ 


1 
1 

1 


1 

f 

o 


i 

1 


1 


Anadyst. 






In 


I7S 




60 




0.25 


131 




a 58 


o 




48 


337 


902 


530 


150 


C. 


6.0 


High 


Ca-CI 


Bad 


Fair 




stnutliom I'ai'ilie to.. 


Mai. 2S,1W_> 






23 E. 


















Aug. 4, 1902 
Nov. 17,1010 










660 








29 




168 






267 




80 


N. C. 




Uodei'aio . 


Ca-CO 


Fair 






J. H. Hauschildt 




20 S. 


24 E. 












F. M. Eaton. 


I'nkne w alerCo 
















































Southern Pacific Co. 


















29 
26 


4.0 




§ 


122 
102 




9.0 
12 


174 
134 


140 

ll.i 


50 
20 


N.C. 
N.C. 


75 
170 


Moderate . 


Ca-COi.... 


Fair 

...do 


...do 

...do 




Santa Fe Ry. Co 


Nov. 4,1902 


29 


tss. 


25 E. 




626 




«8 


5 


Kennieolt Water Soft- 


Southern Pacific Co... 


May 30,1902 


31 


21 S. 


26 E. 


so 


624 








20 









u 










35 




do 








Dec. 29,1904 














32 




32 


» 


17-1 












N.C. 






...do 


...do 


...do 


Do. 


, H' ' : U- , V OT 




19 S. 


2«E. 


















Mrs. S.Navarre 


Nov. 21, 1910 






26 E. 


60 




.60 






























...do 


...do 


F.M.Eaton. 


F.Stone 










50 




.50 






128 










242 
















...do 


Do. 


0. K. Hostetter 










(d) 




.35 
















258 
















...do 


Do. 


Southern Pacific Co . . . 












6 20 




31! 




,9 




6 




1711 




50 


N.C. 


00 


...do 


...do 


...do 


...do 


Southern Pacific Co. 



i and aluminum. 



f* 398-16. (To lace page 2 



OK A 



TIT I. aim-: COUNTY. 2 55 

installation of additional pumping plants in those parts of the citrus 
belt where development is now most intense and the effects upon the 
ground water Lave been most clearly discerned, for it is obviously 
more important to protect the orchards that are already producing 

than to plant more. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

The quality of ground water in the basin of Tulare Lake lias been 
discussed in detail in pages 104-109. Waters from wells 20 to 1,400 
feet deep east of the boundary indicated by B'B' (PL IT), generally 
are carbonate 1 waters, good or fair for irrigation, containing about 240 
parts per million of total solids. Nearly all the deep wells yield 
sodium carbonate water; nearly all the supplies are low in scale- 
forming and foaming ingredients and are noncorrosive. The waters 
from wells less than 100 feet deep show greater difference in quality 
than the deeper supplies, a condition explainable by the probability 
that the more highly mineralized ones come from pockets of alkali- 
impregnated silt. The shallow waters of high mineral content almost 
invariably are taken from wells on tracts showing alkali. 



256 



GROUND WATER IN $AN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



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GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 



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GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 281 

KINGS COUNTY. 
GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

The valley portion of Kings County includes the present and past 
Tulare Lake bottoms and the southern slope of the lower Kings 
River delta. Tulare basin is the lowest point in the southern section 
of the valley and is the area in which all surplus waters from Kings 
River southward accumulate. The flood waters of Kings River are 
divided on its delta, part of them flowing northward to join the San 
Joaquin drainage, while the other part flows into Tulare Lake. Dur- 
ing years of low or moderate snowfall and rainfall in the Sierra, 
practically all the flow of Kern, Tule, Kaweah, and Kings rivers is 
used in irrigation, and there is but little excess to escape to the basin; 
but during years of heavy precipitation great volumes of water 
accumulate in the Tulare lowlands. This basin is very shallow. Its 
shores have gentle slopes, hence the area of the lake fluctuates widely 
with slight changes in the depth of the water in it. Since. settlement 
began in the San Joaquin Valley it has had a complex history. 
What is known of its earlier history has been summarized by 
Grunsky. 1 That part of the following resume which deals with 
conditions prior to 1897 is condensed from his account ; the resume 
of conditions since 1907 has been furnished by H. D. McGlashan, 
district engineer, U. S. Geological Survey. 

Resume of history of Tulare Lake. 2 
1853. High. 

1853-1861. Subsidence; elevation of surface in 1861, 204 feet above sea level. 

1861-1863. Rapid rise to the highest known stage, 220 feet above sea level, overflowing 
into San Joaquin River; area about 800 square miles. 

1863-1867. Decline to about 208 or 209 feet above sea level. 

1867-1868. Filled again to about 220 feet above sea level. 

1872-1876. Fluctuated between 211 and 217 feet above sea level. 

1876-1883. Decline to 192 feet above sea level; lowest stage then known. 

1883-1897. Fluctuating; generally low. 

1897-1905. Decline; practically dry in 1898; dry in autumn of 1905. 

1905-1907. Rise; elevation of water surface in summer of 1907, 193 feet above sea 
level; aiea of water surface, November, 1907, 274 square miles. 3 

1907-1908. Depth gradually decreasod from 14 feet in June, 1907, to 8.3 feet in Decem- 
ber, 1908. 

1909-1911. Gradual rise to depth of 13.4 feet in July, 1909; change in stage gradual 
to December, 1911, when depth was 10 feet. 

1912-1913. Precipitation low. Depth gradually decreased to 1.5 feet in September, 
1913. 

i Grunsky, C E., Irrigation near Bakersfield, Cal.: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 17, pp. 
16-17, 1898. Out of print; nay be consulted in libraries. 

2 Elevation of bottom of lake, 179.1 feet above sea level. 

3 McGlashan, H. D., and Dean, H. J., Stream measurements in San Joaquin River basin: U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 299, p. 20, 1912. 



282 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

A knowledge of the history of this lake makes clear the origin and 
character of the soils of all except the northern part of Kings County, 
where the alluvial-fan or " delta" conditions so general in San 
Joaquin Valley prevail. 

Evidences of the former occupancy of the lowlands by the lake 
appear everywhere. Faintly marked sandy beaches encircle the 
depression at various elevations and over these beaches are strewn 
the shells of the mollusks that lived in the lake. In its lowest parts, 
dry and planted in grain in 1905, the fine sediments that settled in 
the lake bottom make a fertile alluvial soil. 

It is to be presumed that the history of the lake for many centuries 
has been like that part of it which we know directly, i. e., that it has 
fluctuated in area and depth, occasionally drying out completely, then 
filling to the point of overflow. Under such conditions relatively 
little of the water which it has contained can have escaped by surface 
overflow; the greater part of it has evaporated or has been absorbed 
by the sands and silts of the lake bottom. 

With the shrinking of the lake during the years preceding the 
inflow of 1906, its old floor was placed under cultivation and valuable 
crops of grain were produced. This successful grain culture proves 
the nonalkaline character of the present surface of the old lake 
bottom, but the saline waters yielded by numerous shallow flowing 
wells within it indicate the presence of alkali at slight depths. The 
few wells available as evidence in and about the borders of the old 
lake, however, indicate that deeper wells in some places obtain the 
better water. 

FLOWING WELLS. 

There are probably as yet less than 100 flowing wells in Kings 
County (77 were visited by Geological Survey representatives in 1905), 
yielding approximately 20 second-feet. Probably not more than 
one-third of the wells are used for irrigation, a large number of small- 
bore shallow wells being used for stock and for domestic supply. 
The northern part of the county, in the vicinity of Hanford, Armona, 
and Lemoore, is well supplied with surface water by the canal systems 
that head in Kings River, and is a most productive, thoroughly culti- 
vated area. Ground waters are not needed and no serious attempt 
has been made to utilize them here. 

In the vicinity of Corcoran, Waukena, and Angiola, however, a 
successful colony has been established that depends almost entirely 
upon ground waters. A number of deep wells have been put down 
to depths of 900 to 1,600 feet, which yield flowing waters in amounts 
ranging from 5 to 40 miner's inches. Shallow wells have also been 
bored and pumping plants have been installed over them. The 
tract includes about 30,000 acres, and alfalfa, cereals, sugar beets, 
dairy and garden products, and fruits are produced successfully. 



- ' ! 


Classification. 


Owner, r 
t 

s). 


Mineral 
content. 


Chemical 
character. 


Quality 
for boilers. 


Quality for ir-i- 
gation. 


J. E. Meadows j 

Do » 

E. P. McAdams j 


nigh 

...do 

Very high. 

Moderate.. 

High 

Moderate. . 

...do 

...do 

High 

...do 

...do 

Verv high. 

High 

...do 

...do 

Low 

Moderate.. 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

High 

...do 

Moderate. . 
...do 

Very high . 

Moderate. . 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Very high . 
...do 

Moderate. . 


Ca-S04.... 

Na-S0 4 .... 
...do 

Ca-COs.... 

Na-S0 4 .... 

Na-COs... 

...do 

...do 

Na-S0 4 .... 

Na-COs... 
...do 

Na-S0 4 .... 

Na-COs... 

Na-S04.... 

Na-COs... 

Ca-COs.... 

Na-COs... 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Na-Cl 

Na-S0 4 .... 

Ca-COs..-. 

Na-COs... 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Na-S0 4 .... 

Na-C0 3 ... 


Bad 

Very bad . 
...do 

Fail- 

Bad 

Fair 

Bad 

Very bad.. 

Bad 

Very bad.. 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Good 

Fair 

Bad 

Fair 

...do 

Bad 

Very bad.. 
...do 

Fair 

...do 

Very bad.. 

Fail- 

...do 

Good 

Fair 

Very bad.. 
...do 

Fair 


Good. 

Do. 
Poor. 
Good. 

Do. 
Fair. 
Poor. 

Do. 
Good 


P. Blakeley • 

W. D. Sprague > 

Rhodes estate ; 


R. W. Dougherty [ 

M. A. Heinlen > 


Do > a 

C. C. Friend i' 

W. N. Stratton '9 


Poor. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do 


J. F. Poole 1*2 

C. E.Mort is 

Mrs. M. Dutra ) 

William Hogle > 


Do. 
Do. 
Good. 


D.Ross L 

Ernest Howe > 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


A. P. Reiding > 

W.S.Buit j 

Mrs. E. M. Killmer 5 6 


Dallas school district j 3 


Do. 


J.Martella \ 

Do J 

W.H.Thayer i i 

City of Corcoran ... . . .7 

D. W. Lewis a 

L. P. Denny [. 1 

Jess & Gates g 6 


Fair. 

Do. 
Poor. 
Good. 
Fair. 

Do. 

Do. 
Bad. 


Do 1 


Fair. 



/ Color, 40 parts. 
Q Color, 140 parts. 



Owner. 



Classification. 



Dat 



Lemical 
iraeter. 



Quality for Quality for 
boilers. irrigation. 



Analyst. 



W. D. Sprague 

Rhodes estate , 

Southern Pacific Co. . 
Santa FeRv. Co 



Nov. ^-C0 3 . 

do.io 

June 23,-Cl... 
Oct. \o.... 



Fair... 
Bad... 

Fair Fair 

..do do 



Fair., 
Poor. 



Pacific Coast Oil Co. 
Santa Fe Ry. Co 



L. P. Denny. 
Jess & Gates. 



Oct. 



'icor." 



Nov. 2£o 

--•-do-io 



Good 

Very bad. . 



...do... 
Fair..., 



Good. 
Poor. 



Bad. 
Fair. 



F. M. Eaton. 
Do. 

Southern Pacific Co. 

Kennicott Water Soft- 
ener Co. 

Pacific Coast Oil Co. 

Kennicott Water Soft- 
ener Co. 

F. M. Eaton. 
Do. 



1; depth unknown. 



98205°— WSP 398—16. 



Table 56.— Field assays of ground waters in Kings County. 
[Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] 



Do 


...do 




Nov! li) 
Nov. 11 
Nov. 9 

Xov'.'io' 




). Spra>.ait' 

des estate 












N. Stratton 

.Poole 


...do 

...do 




Nov. 9 






. N do'.". 


est Ho wc 

'. RekliiiB 


E. M. killmer 

is siiiool District 














Nov. 23 








Do 


.do 



I "-! ■■ 1. 

IIVh'i'. 



Car- 
bonate 

iui Li. !o 



Determined qnanlilies. 
Bicar- 

r:''lii'!( 
'II'. (. '. 



Poiai 



( YiiUpilfO 1 l[llallliiil'*. 



Cosiaini: 
.'lioills 



Alkali 
coeffl- 



I la'.-ile'aiion. 



High 

\ it;.' Ill ii 

.\iolO| '.■. 

Ui-li 

Moderate. 



Ci-cn... 
X.-Sii,.. 
Wi-C'J.. 



' C, corrosive; N. 
i Color, zero. 
" Color, 66 parts. 



Table 57. — Mineral analyses of ground waters in Kings County, 
[Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] 





Date. 


Location. 


I 
! 


Determined quantities. 


Computed quantities. 


Classification. 




Owner. 


Seek 


It. 


O 


| 


1 

1 


i 
i 

'g 

I 




So 

6 


L 

is 


3 

f 


3 
'I 


1 

3 


if? 

P 


•9S 
Ma 


; 


! . 

1 

< 


Mineral 


Clieinical 
i.'iiirii'S'.r. 


One lily ioi 
boilers. 


Quality ior 

iirieation. 


Analyst. 


W. D. Sprague 

!:h,i.!,.s estate 

SI'Sllll'I'lll I'lll'ilH' Co.. 

Santa Va Ry. Co 


Nov. 9,1910 

'iuii R L 2.-.','iwi 

Oct. 1, 1902 


14 
14 

15 


i., s. 
lss. 
18 S. 

22 S. 
22 S. 


20 E. 

20 E. 

■:t is. 

21 E. 

22 E. 
22 E. 

22 E. 

I'll 1.. 


700 
540 

850 
1,424 


»116 

6 27 

39 


1.40 
1.00 


12 

6 
22 


2.0 

Tr. 
Tr. 

2 

111 
3.4 


«69 
94 

264 
«750 


14 





210 
295 
114 
104 

727 


6.6 
8 


22 
75 

21 
21 

35 


266 

335 

152 
710 

'220 


90 
75 
40 
130 


340 

2.-II 

710 

2,000 
180 


N. C. 
N. C. 
N. C. 
N.C. 

N. C. 
N.C. 

N. C. 
N.C. 


10 

10' 
11 

2.6 

12 


Moderate.. 
Higta"-"-"."- 


Na-CO s ... 

'Na-Cl! '.'.'.'. 

...do 

Na-COs... 


had'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
Pair 

...do 

Very bad'.! 


poor.'!!!!! 

Fair 

...do 

Poor.'."!!!! 

Bad 

Fair 


P. M. Eaton. 
Do. 

Poutliern Paeilie Co. 
k, miiroit Waur Soft- 


Santa Fe By. Co 


Nov. 23,1910 
do 


\wrCo. 


less ^ Gates 


',87 





- d0 


Pair 


Do. 



-w^ :t'ix-u:. 



« Computed. 
(To face page 282.) 



> Including oxides of iron and alu 



c Artesian well; depth unknown. 



KINGS COUNTY. 283 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

The quality of the water around Tulare Lake lias been discussed 
in detail in pages 104-109. Along the northern and eastern borders 
of the county dependence is placed almost exclusively in artesian 
wells 1,000 to 2,000 feet deep for irrigation supplies. These wells 
yield fair water. Close to the lake and within its borders wells 20 
to 300 or 400 feet deep yield very poor water, but the quality of 
water between those depths grows better in proportion to distance 
from the center of the lake. 

Means' s tests reported by Lippincott l indicate that the waters 
near the surface immediately east and southeast of Hanford are poor 
in quality; the areas around the 40-foot well in sec. 1, T. 19 S., 
R. 21 E., and the 42-foot well in sec. 2, T. 18 S., R. 23 E., may form 
part of the same territory. 

Wells 1,200 to 1,800 feet deep along the eastern border of the 
county yield water excellent for all uses. 

Three sulphate waters west of the lake are acceptable in irrigation ; 
that from the 285-foot well in sec. 24, T. 21 S., R. 18 E., is being 
applied to vines, garden truck, and small fruit trees. The quality of 
water likely to be struck by wells south and southwest of the lake 
is problematical for that region includes the marshy overflow lands 
across which the discharge of Kern River has passed, and as the 
silts there have probably been derived from both east-side and west- 
side encroachments it can not be assumed that the waters from them 
would be of the west-side type. It seems probable, however, that 
supplies similar to those in T. 22 S., R. 22 E., would be found in 
T. 23 S., R. 22 E., and that artesian waters in T. 22 S., R. 19 E., 
and T. 23 S., R. 20 E., would be similar to that from the 225-foot 
well in T. 22 S., R. 19 E. 

i Lippincott, J. B., Storage of water on Kings River, California: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 
Paper 58, pp. 56-79, 1902. 



284 



GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 






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GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, 289 

KERN COUNTY. 
GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

Kern County, which includes the extreme southern end of the San 
Joaquin Valley, receives its principal water supply, both surface and 
underground, from Kern River, which Hows out upon the valley floor 

just above Bakersfield. Minor amounts, chiefly as winter flood 
waters, are contributed by Poso Creek and the streams thai enter 
the valley from the south and west. Tlio supply in excess of that 
used by the canal systems flows into Buena Vista Reservoir, where it 
is stored for the irrigation of the Miller & Lux lands along the 
trough of the valley to the north. During seasons of particularly 
heavy stream flow, a portion of the water escapes northward along 
either the mam channel or Goose Slough channel toward Tulare Lake. 
This county has the least precipitation of all those in San Joaquin 
Valley, the average for a long period at Bakersfield being 4.81 inches, 1 
and consequently the direct supply of surface water is markedly 
small. 

In the course of its distribution over the delta lands through the 
canals in irrigation, and by flow through the natural distributaries, a 
definite portion of the water sinks and so maintains a condition of 
saturation of the sands and gravels that have been deposited in the 
course of the growth of -the delta. These saturating waters, like the 
surface waters, move in the direction of the slope of the delta, but at 
a much slower rate. They circulate more freely through the coarser 
beds of the delta deposits, and as they pass beneath the finer beds that 
are more numerous in those parts of an alluvial fan that are most 
distant from its head they accumulate pressure. Therefore when 
the confining beds above them are pierced by a well they rise, and 
if the pressure is sufficient they flow over the surface. These are the 
flowing artesian wells of the beds of Kern and Buena Vista lakes and 
the region extending some miles north of them, and of the main San 
Joaquin Valley artesian basin, beginning in the neighborhood of But- 
tonwillow and extending thence northward down San Joaquin 
Valley to the delta of San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers. It may 
connect with the Buena Vista artesian area, although there is no 
evidence available now to determine this point. 

FLOWING WELLS. 

In 1905 there were 112 flowing wells in the county that were exam- 
ined, and there were doubtless a few more that were not seen. The 
yield of these was in the neighborhood of 70 or 75 second-feet. About 
one-third of the wells were used for irrigation, the remainder being 

i Cone, V. M., Irrigation in the San Joaquin Valley, California: U. S. Dept. Agr. Off. Exper. Sta. Bull. 
239, p. 11, 1911. 

98205°— wsp 398—16 19 



290 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

used for stock or domestic purposes or allowed to waste. The areas 
in which they occur are indicated by the outlines of the artesian 
basins, as shown on PL I (in pocket). 

Generally speaking, the artesian pressures have not been seriously 
affected by the developments that have taken place to date, although 
there are some wells, as in the Semitropic district, whose flow has 
decreased markedly as a result of the boring of big wells near by, but 
on lower ground and therefore in more favorable situations. Arte- 
sian wells usually deteriorate with age, as a result of any one of sev- 
eral causes, as slow filling with sand, clogging by gelatinous growths 
of microscopic organisms, and deterioration of the casing. 

The State Engineering Department of California measured the yield 
of certain flowing wells in the Kern delta in 1885, and some of these 
were remeasured in 1905. The remeasured wells show decreases in 
yield varying from 50 to 100 per cent, but in only one of the wells 
available for comparison has there been complete cessation of flow. 
Decrease in yield of individual wells as development progresses is so 
usual a phenomenon that no community can safely plan its future 
on the assumption that a cheap supply of this type will remain con- 
stant, even in such large basins as those of the San Joaquin. But 
flowing water should be available for years from those wells whose 
initial yield is sufficiently large to be of value. Later, when the 
communities are more thickly settled and the wells are so closely 
grouped that flow and yield are materially decreased, industrial con- 
ditions may have so changed that pumps can profitably be installed 
to augment the supply. The cost of such pumped waters will usually 
be particularly low, because of the slight lift required to bring them 
to the surface. 

PUMPING PLANTS. 

In 1906 there were more than 100 pumping plants in Kern County 
developing underground water for various purposes. Of these about 
40 were gas plants, 25 were steam plants, and the rest were electric. 
Nearly all of the steam plants have been abandoned or replaced with 
plants using gas engines or electric motors. The developed waters 
are used for irrigation, for city supplies, for engine waters, and as sup- 
plies for steam plants, as at the pumping stations of the Pacific Coast 
Oil Co. 

In the district about Bakersfield 50 pumping plants are in use to 
develop irrigation water. Half of these are electrically operated 
and belong to the Kern County Land Co. Each of these plants is 
equipped with 30 or 40 horsepower motors directly connected with 
No. 8, 10, or 12 centrifugal pumps. Each pump is connected with 
from one to four 13-inch wells, the number being determined by the 
yield of each well. From the data collected on these wells the fol- 



kern county: 291 

lowing cost averages were computed on the basis of the quoted charge 
of 15 cents per horsepower per 24 hours for the electric power used. 

Table 59. — Data concerning pum ping plants in Kern County. 

Average depth to the water from the surface, in feet 10 

Average suction 20 feet. Average total lilt, in feet 30 

Total yield of 25 plants, in second-feet 100. 34 

Total horsepower consumed 8G0 

Total cost per day for current to develop 100.34 second feet, 

8G0 H. P. , at 15 cents $129. 00 

Cost per second-foot for 24 horn's $1. 29 

Cost per acre-foot of water developed $0. 65 

The company estimates that other items bring the total cost of 
operation and maintenance to $1.70 per second-foot for 24 hours or 
85 cents per acre-foot. Taxes, interest, and depreciation amount to 
about 15 per cent on the investment, and as the plants are operated 
about 100 days a year these items increase the total cost of devel- 
oping ground water to $3 per second-foot for 24 hours or $1.50 per 
acre-foot. 

The standard of water costs in this district is set by the price of 
gravity water from the Kern — 75 cents per second-foot for 24 hours, 
or about 38 cents per acre-foot, where distribution is affected by sales. 

The pumped water therefore, even under the excellent system of 
the Kern County Land Co., costs about four times as much as the 
gravity water, and its cost will increase as it is developed from 
deeper strata with higher lifts. It seems to be quite generally be- 
lieved locally that water at these prices can not be used profitably. 

This may be true with the wasteful methods employed, the exces- 
sive amounts of water often applied, the class of crops produced, and 
the general lack of intensive cultivation; but it has been clearly 
proved in other communities and by individual experiences in the 
Bakersfield region itself that with more diversified or better selected 
crops, smaller individual holdings, and more intensive methods of 
farming, good profits may be made from the alkali-free lands of the 
delta and plains by the careful use of water at these or at even 
higher prices. It is safe to predict that the most important future 
developments in Kern County will result from the application of 
these principles. 

Under any conditions that are likely to obtain in the near future 
it is not to be expected that ground waters at greater depths than 
25 or 30 feet below the surface as an extreme will be usable for irriga- 
tion purposes. Water at this or less depths exists, of course, through- 
out the artesian areas along the lowest parts of the valley. It is to 
be found also throughout the greater part of Kern delta and in the 
lower parts of Poso Creek delta from a point about halfway between 
Famoso and Wasco westward. Near the foothills on each side of the 



292 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

valley the ground water is not accessible except under unusual con- 
ditions, as in the flood plains of the larger rivers, or in areas where 
particularly valuable products, such as citrus fruits, will justify the 
expense of pumping to exceptional heights. In the intermediate 
areas between the deltas of the streams that supply the ground water 
it is also apt to be too deep to be accessible. This condition is illus- 
trated in the area between Kern and Poso Creek deltas, east of Shaf- 
ter station, on the Santa Fe Railway, and in the region between 
Delano and the foothills just south of the Tulare County line. 

Near the northern edge of the county the main artesian belt of 
the valley, whose southern end is in the vicinity of Buttonwillow, 
expands to a width of 26 or 27 miles measured along the county line. 
Much of this central portion of the valley along the north edge of 
Kern County is in large holdings and is therefore but thinly settled, 
but developments are ample to prove the artesian conditions and to 
permit outlining the artesian belt with a fair degree of accuracy. 
The outlines as determined are shown on the map (PL I, in 
pocket), which also shows by means of hy orographic contours the 
depth to the ground-water level outside the artesian limits. 

Although little direct evidence bearing upon this point exists, 
there can be no doubt that beneath the broad steeply sloping west- 
side plains of Kern County the ground water a few miles back from 
the trough of the valley is too deep to be accessible, because the water 
table has but little slope, the depth to it at any point being approxi- 
mately equal to the elevation of that point above the trough of the 
valley. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

The information regarding the quality of the ground waters of 
Kern County is more or less local, and therefore generalizations can 
not be made with such definiteness as in other parts of the valley. 
Water from wells of different depths around Delano, Famoso, and 
Oil Center was tested, and the basin of Kern Lake was explored. 
A line of assays was made from Famoso to Semitropic, and deep 
and shallow waters were examined as far west as Buttonwillow 
and T. 25 S., E. 23 E. 

The chemical composition of waters in Kern County is somewhat 
different from that of supplies farther north, especially in respect to 
the distribution of sulphate. Five wells 43 to 220 feet deep at 
Delano yield waters good for irrigation and fair to poor for boiler 
use; all contain appreciable amounts of sulphate, but they are not 
nearly so strongly mineralized as the water of an 18-foot well, which 
carries 1,600 parts of total solids. Three wells east of Delano in 
T. 25 So, R. 26 E., 80 to 180 feet deep, yield sodium carbonate water 
low enough in mineral content to be good for irrigation. Water 



KERN COUNTY. 293 

from two wells 108 and 118 feet deep at Delano is being successfully 

used in irrigating orange trees. 

1 Flowing wells 300 to 995 feet deep at Pond pumping station and 
west of there in T. 25 S., R. 24 E., yield sodium carbonate waters 
low in mineral content like those along the western border of Tulare 
County, and these waters have been used to irrigate alfalfa, grain, 
garden truck, and trees. The only shallow well that was tested 
gives a sodium sulphate water of poorer quality. The supply from 
a 700-foot well at Pond pumping station is used in boilers without 
treatment except preheating, and the assay shows that the water 
is low in all harmful constituents. 

Wells 50 to 175 feet deep at Famoso yield calcium carbonate 
water, acceptable for irrigation and somewhat lower in mineral 
content than the average water of the east-side type farther north. 
Wells of similar depth west of Famoso yield inferior sodium carbonate 
water higher in sulphate. Wells 1*2 to 326 feet deep around 
Semitropic still farther west have supplies similar to those at Pond, 
and their waters have been similarly used. Water from the 480- 
foot well in sec. 8, T. 27 S., R. 23 E., curiously enough, is much 
higher in chlorine than that from the other wells. As the water of 
a 1,150-foot well in the same section has not been used for a long 
time and stands below the top of the casing the* complete test of 
its water is not reported, but it shows the presence of 235 parts 
per million of chlorine. Water from the artesian well of S. B. 
Anderson, west of Semitropic, the depth of which is not reported, 
contains more than 700 parts of chlorine, according to an examination 
made in the State laboratories. All these wells probably lie in the 
eastern edge of a highly mineralized area, for deep waters east of 
this locality are low in chlorine. 

The water that is pumped with the oil from wells in Kern River 
field contains little sulphate or chloride, but it is very hard. A 
battery of wells about 400 feet deep in sec. 5, T. 29 S., R. 28 E., and 
a 200-foot well in sec. 7, T. 29 S., R. 28 E., furnish boiler and drink- 
ing water moderate in mineral content and much better than that 
from deeper wells. No pre treatment is necessary for these supplies, 
and only a small amount of eggshell scale has to be removed from 
the boilers every two weeks. 

Shallow waters as far south of Bakersfield as Kern Lake basin are 
fair for use in boilers and good for irrigation, as they are calcium 
carbonate waters of moderate mineral content. Their situation in a 
well-cultivated region supplied with surface water partly explains 
their excellent quality. The deeper waters in the lake basin farther 
south are of good quality, but they increase in sulphate southward, 
and those close to the foothills are bad. These changes are graphi- 



294 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 

cally represented in section D' E', figure 4, and they are more fully 
discussed on pages 109-110. 

The poor quality of the ground waters in an alkali belt immediately 
southeast of Kern is proved by the tests of supplies in the eastern 
part of T. 30 S., R. 28 E. Three waters from wells 60, 140, and 240 
feet deep south of this area are better. 

Four flowing wells northeast of Buttonwillow, 444 to 850 feet 
deep, yield similar supplies. As they are sodium carbonate waters 
of low mineral content, similar to those at Semitropic and Pond, it 
is reasonable to conclude that flowing wells east of range 23 between 
Buttonwillow and Kings River will yield water good or fair for irri- 
gation and for boiler use. A shallow well in sec. 31, T. 28 S., R. 24 
E., gives water of the same nature. The low, broad, but well-defined 
ridge that lies between the artesian area in T. 28 S., R. 24 E., and 
that in T. 29 S., R. 23 E., may separate the two flowing-well basins. 
The fact that the three artesian supplies in the latter township are 
sodium chloride waters of poorer quality than those northward is 
significant but not conclusive, as conditions here may be analogous 
to those at Semitropic, where no such ridge exists. Two shallow 
wells at Buttonwillow yield hard water good for irrigation but poorer 
than that in T. 28 S., R. 24 E., while the 101-foot well at Button- 
willow depot yields still harder water. 

Little information is available regarding the quality of the waters 
west of range 23, but the data given by Arnold and Johnson 1 
regarding the springs and wells in the west-side hills establish their 
highly mineralized character. These supplies are probably similar 
in composition and concentration to the gypseous waters of western 
Fresno County. 

1 Arnold, Ralph, and Johnson, H. R., Preliminary report on McKittrick-Sunset oil region, Cal.: U. S. 
Geol. Survey Bull. 406, pp. 102-107, 1910. 



e Seven wt 



Owner. 



Classification. 



Chemical 
character. 



e.. 



J.P.Irisb 

Southern Pacific Co.. 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Williams & Noyer. . . 
Southern Pacific Co.. 

Do ;■ 

Do 

P. M. Wilkerson " 

Kern County Land Co 

Southern Pacific Co -^ 

Petroleum Development & 
Co. 

Pacific Coast Oil Co " 

E.A.Marriott r" 



Na-CL. 
...do... 
Ca-C0 3 . 
Ca-SOi. 
...do.... 
Ca-C0 3 . 
...do.... 
...do.... 
..do.... 
Ca-S0 4 . 
Ca-C0 3 . 
Na-COs. 
Ca-COs. 
Na-CL. 



Ca-COs. 
...do.... 



Quality for 
boilers. 



Bad.... 
..do.... 

Fair 

..do.... 
...do.... 
..do.... 
..do.... 
..do.... 
Good... 
Poor . . . 
Fair.... 
Good... 
Fair.... 
Very bad 



Good. 
Poor. 



Quality 
for irri- 
gation. 



Analyst. 



Fair.. 
..do.. 
Good. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
..do- 
Bad.. 

Good. 
..do.. 



F. M. Eaton. 
Southern Pacific Co. 

Do. 

Do. 
F. M. Eaton. 
Southern Pacific Co. 
F. M. Eaton. 
Southern Pacific Co. 

Do. 

Do. 
F. M. Eaton. 

Do. 
Southern Pacific Co. 
F. M. Eaton. 

Pacific Coast Oil Co. 
F. M. Eaton. 



98205°— WSP 398-1 



Table 60.-Fkld assays of ground waters in Kern County. 



[Parts per million e 



P.Silas 

C. B.Crawford. 
Miller & Lux... 



Southern Pacific Co. 



'.t*i n Count v I .ml 

A. W. Thresher 

Tracy Bros 



T.B.Orr 

Southern Paci',,- in.. 
Pacific Coast Oil Co 

K '-rn C'nimfv J.nud Co . 
«'. J.f. Smith 



Southern Pacific Co. 

R. Orcier 

H.C. Phillips 

W.W. Kaye 



w. R. shatter 

1 ■■ • Schmidt 

Miller A Lux 

kern County Land t 



Associated Oil Co.. . 

Do 

Pacific Coast Oil Co. 



F.-.ii:j\ *eh<inl dilri- ' 

IV,,-! Mull 

C. F. ITaperkeru 



I -.1 : ! .... 

R. E. HoMithton 

K. A. Langdon 

Mrs. M. Johnson 

Mount lin View veil,,,,! distr 



b 32 

8 | 32 



i, ,-.[,ll 

i iW-i i. 



Computed quantifies. 



Moderuio . 



Ca-CO.. 

Na-Cl.. 
Na-Cl.i 



Quality 

iriu-;lii,i„. 



-..v, N.C.,. 

6 Artesian well depth unknown; probable more than -inn iV-el . 
- Two veils ii.k iiimI ltsieetdeep. 

IThe95-inche;:-iiic i- landed a, :.,-,• I'll,, -i i,i,l ilie 1 J --iti.-li riwt 
f Seven wells 400 to 405 feet deep. 



1 ,030 feet. The first sample i: 



t comes out between I Ik- so ,.-:,• ana,, and the second i; 



Table 61. — Mineral analyses of ground waters in Kern County. 
|Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] 







Location. 




Determined quantities. 


Computed quantities. 


Classification. 






Owner. 


Date. 


See. 


T. 


- 


i 


1 


| 


| 

1 


1 

a 


If 




f! 
I s 


3 

|s 

•f 


1 


1 


& . 

Jl 


1. 

-So 

f 


1, 


1| 


Mineral 


Chemical 

cilaratn, -r. 


C;,lality l.ir 


ijuali'y 
gation. 


,„.,„,. 


T.P.Irish 


Nov. 2S.1910 


fi 


?,7S 


23 F, 


4S0 




0.10 






6 95 


i" 


67 


„ 


112 


312 


80 


?m 


N.C. 


„ 




Na-Cl 


Had 


Fair 


F. M. Eaton. 


Southern I'jciiic Co 




18 


'.':> s. 






<;19 








161 










540 








8 










S„UI : a,, I'aeincCo. 






11 


■j;-s. 
■rjs. 


25 E. 


12.', 
220 




'"."35' 


42 
41 




50 
6 40 
18 


2 


92 


51 


29 


354 
351 






? 

7 
? 


35 
30 
■10 
100 


Moderate.. 
...do 

...do 

...do 


Ca-CO, 

Ca-S(),.... 

...do 

Ca-C0 3 .... 


'.'.'.do'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 


t.tiud.... 
..do 






Nov. :>?; I'jio 
















7 
































NF.C 


250 








F. M. Katon. 




S,-|,l. [.',, I>'IJ 


16 


30 S. 


26 E. 








42 




26 








23 




160 


70 














Sum:- -in 1-aeifie Co. 








29 S. 
















































24 






' 










60 










499 




160 


■I 






Ca-SI >,.... 


















52 
























35 


< 1". 


is:i 


..do 










kern County Land Co 






























218 
















































289 


180 






19 












Petroleum Pevelupe.ieiu 
Co. 


Dec. 2, 1910 


4 


29 S. 


28E. 


/5.135 




.05 


10 


1.2 


61,550 





1,708 





1,418 


3, 930 


60 


4,200 




.0 


VeryhLrli. 




Very bad.. 


Bad 






29 


29 S. 

30 S. 


28E. 
29 E. 


200 


c26 


-.» 


61 


7 


14 






84 
278 


51 


28 


134 
372 


90 
260 


•10 


N.C. 


40 
60 




Ca-C0 3 .... Good 1 

..do Poor | 


°.d°o d ::::! 


Pacific Coast Oil Co. 




Dec. 3, 1910 


F. M. Eaton. 













1 uncertain or doubtful 
1 and aluminum (FeoOa+AljOj). 



.- \\ en- -'.i- i'''.:].'.i-T-,iiria roundhouse. 
/ From bottom of weu*. 



KERN COUNTY. 



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INDEX. 



A. Page. 

Acids, effects Of, in water 70 

Alameda County, records of wells in '. . 196 

Alkali, occurrence of 52 

permissible limits of 52-54, 50-58 

remedies for troubles from 58-G1 

source of 51-52 

Alkalies, relative harmfidness of 55 

Ailing, P., pumping plant of, test of 150 

American Railway Engineering and Mainte- 
nance of Way Association, re- 
ports on boiler waters by 67-09 

Analyses of ground water 134-138, 

180-131, 198-199. 210-211, 227- 
228, 237-23S, 255, 283, 292-294 

Anderson, J. J., pumping plant of, test of 159 

Artesian areas, ground-water levels, and 
pumping plants examined, map 

showing In pocket 

Axial waters, composition and quality of. . 117-119 

suitability of, for industrial use 130, 131 

for irrigation 125, 126 

B. 

Bacteria, precautions against, in w r ater 74-75 

Badger Irrigation Co., pumping plant of, test 

of 159 

Beard, Mrs. William P., pumping plant of, 

test of 147-148 

Bicarbonate, test of water for 42 

See also Carbonate. 
"Black alkali." See Carbonate. 
Blacherne Water Co. pumping plant of, test 

of 157 

Boiler compounds, character and use of 64-65 

Boilers, ratings of waters for 65-C9 

troubles from water in, causes of. 61-63 

remedies for 63-09 

Borden, pumping plants at, tests of 153-154 

Briscoe, — , pumping plant of, test of 161 

Buena Vista reservoir, water of, analysis of . . 96 
Bunker, W. E., pumping plant of, test of 148 

C. 

Calaveras County, records of wells in 196 

Calcium, effects of, in water 71-72, 76, 78-79 

Calcium sulphate, deposition of 116-117 

California Agricultural Experiment Station, 

analyses of waters by 134-138 

Carbonate, effects of, in water 72, 78 

test of water for 42 

Charles, Dr. M. S., pumping plant of, test of. 163 

Cldorine, content of, in artesian water 117-119 

effects of, in water 72-73, 75-76, 77 

test of water for 42 

Coagulants, substances used as 86 

Cold water, effect of irrigating with 127 



Cole r, disadvantage of, in water 70, 74 

Contra Costa County, records of wells in. . . 194-190 
Copo de Oro Water Co., pumping plant of, 

test of 158 

Corrosion of boilers, causes of 02 

D. 

Denudation in the Sierra, rate of 97-98 

Deposition in San Joaquin Valley, rate of 98-99 

Depreciation of pumping plants, percentage 

of 166, 168 

Depth, relation of, to mineral content 122-123 

Development of the valley trough 19 

Disinfection of water, means of 84 

Distillate, price of 166 

Domestic use, poor supplies for, depth and 

position of 132 

requirements of water for 73-82 

Drainage, removal of alkali by 60-61 

Dutton, J. C, pumping plants of, tests of 143 

E. 

Eaton, F. M., analyses by 90-91 

w^ork of 39 

East-side waters, composition and quality 

of 110-112 

suitability of, for industrial use 128-129, 131 

for irrigation 123-124. 126 

Efficiency cf pumping plants, mode of esti- 
mating 167 

Exeter, pumping plants at, tests of 159-161 

F. 

Feed water, heating of 88-89 

Filtration, rapid sand, description of 86-87 

slow sand, description of 84-86 

Fiske, A. J., jr., work of 212, 229, 295 

Flooding, effect of, on alkali 58-60 

Foaming in boilers, causes of 63 

Food products, areas in the Southwest in 

which they can be produced 10 

increasing demand for , in the Southwest . 9 

Fresno, pumping plant at, test of 154-155 

Fresno County, farming and irrigation in. . 234-236 

flowing wells in 236-237 

ground waters of, assays and analyses 

of : 237-238 

pumping in, cost of 235 

records of wells in 239-251 

waters of, analyses of 136-137, 139 

Fuel oil, price of 166 

G. 

Gard, O. S., pumping plant of, test of 161 

Geography of the valley. . ; 15-17 

Geology, outline of 18-21 

Girard, W. R., pumping plant of, test of 151 

307 



308 



INDEX, 



Page. 

Ground water, accessibility of 30 

analyses of. . . . 134-138, 180-181, 198-199, 210-211, 
227-228, 237-238, 255, 283, 292-294 

circulation of 28-29 

collection of samples of 40-41 

development of 30-32 

field assay of 41-50 

accuracy of 43-45 

results of, compared with results of 

analyses. 46-50 

origin of 27 

quantity of 29 

quality of, important 38-39 

substances tested for in 50-51 

value of, for irrigation 32-37 

Grunsky , C. E . , on the history of Tulare Lake. 281 
Gustine, pumping plants at, tests of 148-149 

H. 

Harding, S. T., and Robertson, Ralph D., on 

development of the ground water. 32 

Hardness, test of water for 43 

Hauschildt, G. H., pumping plant of, test 

of 163-164 

Hieb, J. A., pumping plant of, test of 146 

High, J. H., pumping plant of, test of 144 

Hill, T. R., pumping plant of, test of 142-143 

Hilo pump, test of 157 

Hogan Bros., pumping plants of, tests of. . 150-151 

House, Joe, pumping plant of, test of 149 

Hydrogen sulphide, effects of, in water. . . 73, 74, 75 

I. 

Imperial Valley, benefit of irrigation to 10 

Industrial use, requirements for 69-73 

results of 130-131 

suitability of water for 128-131 

Industries, extent of 128 

Iron, effects of, in water 70-71, 75 

Irrigation, development of, in the Southwest. 9-13 
suitability of ground water for. . . 32-37, 123-125 

use of ground water for 31-32 

value of ground water for 32-37 

with cold water, effect of 127 

with ground water, results of 125-127 

J. 

Job,R. W., pumping plant of, test of 156 

K. 

Kern County, flowing wells in 289-290 

Kern County, ground water of, assays and 

analyses of 138, 139, 292-294 

ground water of, sources of 289 

pumping plants in 290-292 

records of wells in 295-306 

Kern River, water of, analyses of 91 

Kettleman, George D., pumping plant of, 

test of 145 

Kings County, flowing wells in 282 

ground waters of, assays and analyses of. . 137, 

139,283 

records of wells in 284-288 

Kings River, development of ground water 

on 234-236 



Kings River, monthly discharge of 26 

wells north of, composition of water of. . 100-104 
Kummis, Sam, pumping plant of, test of 147 

L. 

La Salle, A. S., pumping plant of, test of. . 143-144 

Laurel Colony, pumping plant of, test of 163 

Leach, J. II., pumping plant of, test of 158-159 

Lift of pumps, limit of 170 

Lindsay., pumping plants at, tests of 161-162 

Lippincott, J. B., on irrigation with ground 

water in Fresno County 234-235 

Lodi, pumping plants at, tests of. . 142-148, 150-151 

M. 

Mc Adams , F . S . , pumping plant of, test of. . . 164 
Mc Adams, W. J., pumping plant of, test of. . 164 

McCreary, P. L., analyses by 90-91 

McGee, W. J. , work of 90-91 

McGlashan, H. D., on the history of Tulare 

Lake 281 

Madera, pumping plants at, tests of 152-153, 154 

Madera County, farming and irrigation in 226 

flowing wells in 226-227 

ground waters of, assays and analyses of. 136, 

139, 227-228 

pumping plants in 227 

records of wells in 229-233 

Magnesium, effects of, in water 71-72, 76, 78-79 

Martin, G. A., pumping plant of, test of 156 

Martin, L. G., pumping plant of, test of 164 

Means, Thomas H., work of 234 

Merced, pumping plants at, tests of 151-152 

Merced County, farming and irrigation in. . 208-209 

flowing wells in 209 

ground waters of, assays and analyses of. 136, 

139, 210-211 

pumping plants in 209-210 

records of wells in 212-225 

Merced River, water of, analyses of 91-93 

Mesmer, Louis, work of 234 

Micke, W. G., pumping plant of, test of 147 

Mineral content of ground waters, diagram 

showing 120 

increase of, from south to north 119-122 

relation of, to depth 122-123 

Mokelumne River, water of, analyses of 91 

Municipal water supplies, composition of. . 133-134 

O. 
Organic matter, effects of, in water 73 

P. 

Pacific Coast Oil Co., treatment of boiler 

waters by 129-130 

Packard, W. C, work of 90-91 

Pate, S . M . , pumping plant of , test of 1 52 

Patterson, H. W., pumping plant of, test of. . 153 

Patterson, pumping plant at, test of 149 

Patterson Colony, pumping plant of, test of. . 149 

Pogue, Tom, pumping plant of, test of 160 

Pollution, possibility of 132 

Portersville, pumping plants at, tests of . . . 155-159 

Potability, rating of water as to 79-82 

Powers, W. A., acknowledgment to 40 



INDEX. 



309 



Page. 

Precipitation, record of, In 1910 -nmi 

Preston, P. W., pnmping planl of, test of — 160 

Plied . K. M., work of 212. 290 

Pumping, cost of electric current for 34 

Pumping machinery, large, expense of u>s-iG9 

overloading and underloading, waste in.. 170 
overspeeding and underspeeding, waste 

in 171-172 

selection of proper size of 174-176 

Pumping tests, discussion of 168-176 

tabulated results of 165-167 

Pumps, cost of operating, against various 

static heads 1 73 

of various sizes, time required for irriga- 
tion with 172 

Q. 

Quality of ground waters, means of forecast- 
ing 139-140 

near Tulare Lake, map showing prospects 

for - 108 

summary of 140-141 

R. 

Rash, Charles, pumping plant of, test of . . . 145-146 

Reinhart, William, work of 90-91 

Rivers. Sec Streams. 

Robertson, Ralph D., Harding, S. T., and, on 

development of the ground water. 32 

Rocks of the border of the valley 18-20 

Roderigs, Jesse, pumping plant of, test of 152 

Roeding & Wood Nursery Co., pumping 

plant of, test of 162 

Root, Dr. C. B., pumping plants of, tests of. . 161-162 
Rosedale Water Co., pumping plant of,testof . 155 

S. 

Salt. See Chlorine. 

San Joaquin County, flowing wells in 178 

ground waters of, assays and analyses of 135, 

139, 180-181 

pumping plants in 178-180 

records of wells in 183-194 

San Joaquin River, water of, analyses of 91-93 

San Joaquin valley, west side of, composition 

of well waters of 112-117 

Sayre, A. L., pumping plant of, test of 152-153 

Scale, formation of 61-62 

Settlemire, D. C, pumping plant of, test of. 155-156 

Shaw, L. W., pumping plant of, test of 160-161 

Skaggs, S. W., pumping plant of, test of 154 

'Smith, S. M.,work of 212,229 

Soda ash, use of, for softening water 76 

Softening of water, means of 76, 87-88 

Soils, origin of 22-23 

problems concerning 11 

relation of applied water to 55-56 

surveys of 23 

Solids, total, formula for estimating 81-82 

Southern Pacific Co., procedure in analyses 

• for 50 

treatment of boiler waters by 129 

Stabler Herman, formulas of, for rating boiler 

waters ., 65-67 



Page. 

Stanislaus County, (lowing wells in 197-198 

ground waters of, assays and analyses 

of L35, 198 LOO 

pumping plants in 198 

rainfall and surface waters of 107 

records of wells in 200 207 

Stanislaus River, water of, analyses of 91-93 

Stanislaus Water Co., irrigation by 177 

st ill man, Howard, acknowledgment to 40 

Stockton & Mokelumne Irrigating ( o., opera- 
tions of 177 

Streams, mean yearly run-off of 25 

yearly discharge of 24 

waters of, analyses of 90-93 

Sulphate, content of, in ground waters, cross 

sections showing 102 

content of, in ground waters, map show- 
ing In pocket 

effects of, in water 72 

test of water for 42-43 

Sunnyside Water Co., pumping plant of, test 

of 158 

Surface of the valley, building of 20-21 

Surface waters, chemical composition of 90-99 

volume of 23-26 

Suspended matter in water, effects of 70, 73-74 

T. 
Tindell, P. H., pumping plant of, test of. . . 144-145 
Tretheway, John, pumping plant of, test of. . 146 

Tulare, pumping plants at, tests of 163-164 

Tulare County, flowing wells in 252 

ground waters of, assays and analyses 

of 137, 139, 255 

permanence of 253-255 

sources of 252 

pumping plants in 253 

records of wells in 256-280 

Tulare Lake, history of 281-282 

water of, analyses of 94-96 

wells near, composition of water of 104-109 

proper depth of 108-109 

wells south of, composition of water of. 109-110 

Tuolumne River, water of, analyses of 91-93 

Tyler, E . P., pumping plant of, test of 151 

U. 

United States Geological Survey, investiga- 
tions of ground waters by 13-15 

United States Reclamation Service, analyses 

of well waters by 139 

V. 
Valle-Verde Investment Co., pumping plant 

of, test of 154-155 

Van Winkle, Walton, analyses by 90-91 

workof 39 

W. 

Wagner, Jacob, pumping plant of, test of 148 

Walters Bros . , pumping plant of , test of 154 

Water, applied, relation of, to soils 55-56 

distillation of, apparatus for 83 

mineral, potability of 76-79 

purification of, demands on 82-83 

methods of 83-88 

turbid, effects of 70 



310 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Wells around Tulare Lake, water of, compo- 
sition of 104-109 

flowing, data on 36 

location and depth of, in relation to sul- 
phate content of ground waters, 
map showing In pocket. 

north of Kings River, water of, composi- 
tion of 100-104 

of east side of valley , water of, composition 

of 110-112 



Page. 

Wells, records of 182-196 

south of Tulare Lake, water of, composi- 
tion of 109-110 

West-side waters,composition and quality of 112-117 

suitability of, for industrial use 129-130, 131 

for irrigation 124-125, 126 

White, W. N., work of 182, 200, 212 

Windmills, use of, in San Joaquin County . . 179-180 
Woodbridge Canal & Irrigation Co., opera- 
tions of 177 



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